景泰蓝 景泰蓝又称"铜胎掐丝珐琅"，是一种中国传统的手工艺精品。它以细扁铜丝作线条，在铜制的胎地上捏出各种图案花纹，再将五彩珐琅点填在花纹内，经烧制、磨平、镀金而成。 景泰蓝起源于元朝时（公元1271～1368年）的大都城（今北京市），盛行于明代景泰年间（公元1450～1457年）。因其釉料颜色主要以蓝色为主，所以被称为"景泰蓝"。旧时的景泰蓝制品专供皇室贵族享用、是权力和地位的象征。新中国成立后，景泰蓝工艺有了进一步发展，在工艺上更趋成熟。目前的品种主要包括景泰蓝和花丝景泰蓝两大类，其中景泰蓝产品又分为金地景泰蓝和蓝地景泰蓝两部分，花丝景泰蓝又分为金地花丝、银地花丝和蓝地花丝三类。 "景泰蓝"完全由手工制成，制作过程十分精细，需要经过制胎、掐丝、烧焊、点蓝、烧蓝、磨光、镀金等十余道工序。景泰蓝的制作工艺既运用了青铜工艺，又利用了瓷器、珐琅等工艺，同时大量引进传统绘画和雕刻技艺，堪称中国传统工艺的集大成者。景泰蓝的造型优美，图案华丽，色彩鲜艳，给人以富丽堂皇之感，具有很高的艺术价值，在国内外广受赞誉。品种除旧有的装饰性摆件外，近几年又新发展出一大批实用性品种。 Jingtailan The art of Jingtailan (Cloisonné) is a unique combination of sculpture, painting, porcelain making and copper-smithing that is said to have originated in Beijing during the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368). The oldest extant piece was made during the Yuan Dynasty, but Jingtailan underwent a major change during the Ming Dynasty when at about 1450 to 1456, a new blue pigment was discovered and gave Jingtailan its current name based on the Chinese word lan for blue. Ming Dynasty Jingtailan is also considered to be the most intricate. Nevertheless, Jingtailan reached its peak during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) due to great innovations in copper-melting techniques. At present, Jingtailan is classified into two categories: Jingtailan and Flower-strip Jingtailan, each of which has several sub-varieties respectively. The making of Jingtailan requires rather elaborate and complicated processes; base-hammering, copper-strip inlay, soldering, enamel-filling, enamel-firing, polishing and gilding. The products are featured by excellent quality. The skill and workmanship have been handed down from the Ming Dynasty. Since the founding of new China, quite a number of new varieties have been created. It enjoys a high reputation both at home and abroad with most of its products for export. All the products are beautiful and elegant in molding, brilliant and dazzling in colors and splendid and graceful in design. It is a famous local handicraft in Beijing region. Jingtailan can be found on large objects such as vases and other large utensils and decorative items, as well as small items like earrings, bracelets, chopsticks or jars. 剪 纸 剪纸，顾名思义，就是用剪刀把纸剪出成图形。流传于中国广大的农村，由老百姓自己创作欣赏。作者大都是农村妇女。 剪纸包括窗花、门笺、墙花、顶棚花、灯花、花样、喜花、春花、丧花等等。剪纸也是一种民俗艺术，它的产生和流传同农村的节令风俗有着密切的关系。例如窗花、门笺、灯花，便是在春节或元宵节时贴挂的。在北方的农村，过年时，窗上新糊了雪白的窗纸，上面贴上红红绿绿的窗花，门顶、窗前，贴上门笺，元宵节夜晚的灯笼上贴上灯花，把新年的气氛造得浓浓的。喜花是结婚时作为对新房的布置，张贴在室内，家具和器物上。同样，寿花和丧花也是在过生日和办丧事时张贴的。墙花和顶棚花是布置房间时分别贴在墙上和屋顶上的。总之，它们大都是用作布置环境，增强节庆气氛，贴在庭院、居室或器具上的。剪纸的内容是很有讲究的。吉祥图案寓意吉祥辟邪，娃娃、葫芦、莲花等象征多子多福，家禽家畜，瓜果鱼虫是农民熟悉的对象，也是他们表现的主要内容。剪纸作为一种民间艺术，具有很强的地域风格。陕西窗花风格粗朴豪放，单纯简练，河北蔚县和山西广灵剪纸加染色彩，浓厚中透着秀美艳丽。其戏曲人物尤具特色。江苏南京剪纸淳厚，粗中有巧，宜兴剪纸华丽工整，南通剪纸秀丽玲珑。广东佛山剪纸色彩富丽、手法多变、装饰性强。山东高密剪纸细腻精巧，一丝不苟。 从一些考古遗存发现，剪纸至迟在北朝(386-581)时候就已经出现了，至今已经有一千五百年的历史了。它虽然制作简便，造形单纯，但它包容着丰富的民俗和生活内涵，它是对许多种民间美术表现形式的浓缩和夸张，因而比较集中地体现了民间艺术的造型规律、创作构思及作品的形式特征。对民间剪纸的了解和研究，是通向欣赏和认识繁杂多样的民间美术的捷径。 Chinese Papercuts Papercuts refer to handicrafts made by cutting paper with scissors to form different patterns and pasting them on walls, windows, doors and ceilings. With their long history, papercuts, which originated in China, have been very popular among the ordinary people of China. The first papercut can be traced back to the Northern and Southern Dynasties (386-581) period. The initiation and spread of papercuts had a close relationship with Chinese rural festivals. People pasted papercuts on walls, windows and doors at wedding ceremonies or festivals to enhance the festive atmosphere. Chinese papercuts are rich in content. The auspicious designs symbolize good luck and the avoidance of evil. The child, lotus and bottle gourd designs suggest a family with a large number of children and grandchildren. Domestic birds, livestock, fruit, fish and worms are also familiar objects depicted by Chinese farmers. There are some special papercuts of traditional design used as patterns for embroidering clothes, shoes, hats, pillows, bed curtains and door curtains. Papercuts made in different areas have different characteristics. Shaanxi window papercuts are simple and bold; papercuts from Hebei Province and Shanxi Province are bright in color; papercuts in southern provinces are delicate and fine. 中国结 "中国结"全称为"中国传统装饰结"。它是一种中华民族特有的手工编织工艺品，具有悠久的历史。"中国结"的起源可以追溯到上古时期，当时的绳结不仅是人们日常生活中的必备用具，同时还具有记载历史的重要功用，因而在人们的心目中是十分神圣的。很早以前人们就开始使用绳纹来装饰器物，为绳结注入了美学内涵。除了用于器物的装饰，绳结还被应用在人们的衣着、佩饰上，因此绳结也是中国古典服饰的重要组成部分。 唐宋时期（公元7～13世纪）是中国文化、艺术发展的重要时期。这一时期中国结被大量地运用于服饰和器物装饰中，呈明显的兴起之势。至明清时期（公元1368～1911年），"中国结"工艺的发展达到鼎盛阶段，在诸多日常生活用品上都能见到美丽的花结装饰。其样式繁多，配色考究，名称巧妙，令人目不暇接，由衷赞叹。 "中国结"的编制过程十分复杂费时。每个基本结均以一根绳从头至尾编制而成，并按照结的形状为其命名。最后再将不同的基本结加以组合，间配以饰物，便成为富含文化底蕴，表示美好祝福，形式精美华丽的工艺品。 悠久的历史和漫长的文化沉淀使"中国结"蕴涵了中华民族特有的文化精髓。它不仅是美的形式和巧的结构的展示，更是一种自然灵性与人文精神的表露。因此，对传统"中国结"工艺的继承和发展是极有意义的。 Chinese Knots Traditional Chinese decorative knots, also known as Chinese knots, are typical local arts of China. They are a distinctive and traditional Chinese folk handicraft woven separately from one piece of thread and named according to its shape and meaning. In Chinese, "knot" means reunion, friendliness, peace, warmth, marriage, love, etc. Chinese knots are often used to express good wishes, including happiness, prosperity, love and the absence of evil. Chinese people have known how to tie knots using cords ever since they began learned how to attach animal pelts to their bodies to keep warm thousands of years ago. As civilization advanced, Chinese people used knots for more than just fastening and wrapping. Knots were also used to record events, while others had a purely ornamental function. In 1980, dedicated connoisseurs collected and arranged decorative yet practical knots passed down over centuries in China. After studying the structures of these knots, the devotees set about creating new variations and increasing the decorative value of knots. The exquisitely symmetrical knots that come in so many forms are as profound as the great cultural heritage of the Chinese people. The Chinese knot is based on over a dozen basic knots named according to their distinctive shapes, usages, or origins. The Two-Coins Knot, for example, is shaped like two overlapping coins once used in ancient China. The Button Knot functions as a button, and the Reversed Swastika Knot was derived from the Buddhist symbol commonly seen on the streamers hanging down from the waistband of the Buddhist Goddess of Mercy. The knots are pulled tightly together and are sturdy enough to be used for binding or wrapping, making them very practical. Furthermore, the complicated structure of the Chinese knot allows all kinds of variations and enhances its decorative value. Almost all basic Chinese knots are symmetrical, which has set certain technical limitations on the design and creation of new patterns and themes. Symmetry is consistent with time-honored ornamental and aesthetic standards in China. Visually, the symmetrical designs are more easily accepted and appreciated by Chinese people. Except for the Two-Coins Knot, the Chinese knot is three dimensional in structure. It comprises two planes tied together leaving a hollow center. Such a structure lends rigidity to the work as a whole and keeps its shape when hung on the wall. The hollow center also allows for the addition of precious stones. Crafting the Chinese knot is a three-step process which involves tying knots, tightening them and adding the finishing touches. Knot-tying methods are fixed, but the tightening can determine the degree of tension in a knot, the length of loops (ears) and the smoothness and orderliness of the lines. Thus, how well a Chinese knot has been tightened can demonstrate the skill and artistic merit of a knot artist. Finishing a knot means inlaying pearls or other precious stones, starching the knot into certain patterns, or adding any other final touches. Since ancient times, the Chinese knot has adorned both the fixtures of palace halls and the daily implements of countryside households. The Chinese Macrame has also appeared in paintings, sculptures and other pieces of folk art. For instance, the Chinese Macrame was used to decorate chairs used by the emperor and empress, corners of sedans, edges of parasols, streamers attached to the waistbands of lady's dresses, as well as all manners of seals, mirrors, pouches, sachets, eyeglass cases, fans and Buddhist rosaries. The endless variations and elegant patterns of the Chinese knot, as well as the multitude of different materials that can be used (cotton, flax, silk, nylon, leather and precious metals, such as gold and silver, to name a few) have expanded the functions and widened the applications of the Chinese knot. Jewelry, clothes, gift-wrapping and furniture can be accentuated with unique Chinese knot creations. Large Chinese knot wall hangings have the same decorative value as fine paintings or photographs, and are perfectly suitable for decorating a parlor or study. The Chinese knot, with its classic elegance and ever-changing variations, is both practical and ornamental, fully reflecting the grace and depth of Chinese culture. == 茶文化 中国是茶的故乡，早在唐代以前，中国生产的茶叶便通过陆路及海运的方式远销各地。首先到达了日本和韩国，然后传到印度和中亚地区。在明清时期，又传到了阿拉伯增岛。在17世纪初期，中国茶叶又远销至欧洲各国，很多上层社会的贵族、绅士都养成了喝茶的习惯。中国的共和中国的丝绸及磁器一样，已经成为了中国在全世界的代名词。 The Art of Tea "When a guest comes to my home from afar on a cold night, I light bamboo to boil tea to offer him." — Ancient Chinese poem. China is the home country of tea. Before the Tang Dynasty, Chinese tea was exported by land and sea, first to Japan and Korea, then to India and Central Asia and, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, to the Arabian Peninsula. In the early period of the 17th century, Chinese tea was exported to Europe, where the upper class adopted the fashion of drinking tea. Chinese tea—like Chinese silk and china—has become synonymous worldwide with refined culture. At the heart of the art of tea—the study and practice of tea in all its aspects—is the simple gesture of offering a cup of tea to a guest that for Chinese people today is a fundamental social custom, as it has been for centuries. China traces the development of tea as an art form to Lu Yu, known as "the Saint of Tea" in Chinese history, who lived during the Tang Dynasty and who wrote The Book of Tea, the first ever treatise on tea and tea culture. The spirit of tea permeates Chinese culture, and throughout the country there are many kinds of teas, teahouses, tea legends, tea artifacts and tea customs. Better-known places to enjoy a good cup of tea in China include Beijing noted for its variety of teahouses; Fujian and Guangdong provinces and other places in the southeast of China that serve gongfu tea, a formal serving of tea in tiny cups; the West Lake in Hangzhou, also the home of the Tea Connoisseurs Association, noted for its excellent green tea; and provinces in southwest China like Yunnan where the ethnic groups less affected by foreign cultures retain tea ceremonies and customs in original tea-growing areas. == 中国古典音乐 Chinese Classicalmusic Introduction of Folk music Introduction of Folk music When discussing Han Chinese music, it is common to distinguish two major styles: northern and southern. The styles correspond to the two major geographical and cultural areas where most Han people live. Although both styles emanate from the general Han Chinese culture, they differ in detail because of environmental conditions. The north is cold, dry, and windy. The hardships of life are reflected in the high-pitched, tense, and agitated style of folk song. The south, on the other hand, has mild weather and much rain. Life seems to be easier, and the folk songs of the south are generally lyrical and gentle in nature. Chinese music today is also influenced by Western musical concepts, which is an inevitable consequence of historical and social change. Musical Styles The common belief that the Chinese scale is a pentatonic scale (without half steps) is only partly correct. The Han Chinese has at least three forms of a seven-tone scale (See figure 1 in Han Chinese Music Scales). They also use various forms of a five-tone pentatonic scale (See figure 2 in Han Chinese Music Scales). Southern Chinese folk songs tend to progress in more conjunct motion and smoother lines and emphasize the intervals of thirds and fifths. Northern melodies tend to progress in more disjunct, angular motion, and emphasize intervals of a fourth. These tendencies in the use of melodies are related to the tonal characteristics of the contrasting dialects of the two areas. Except in special cases (such as free-rhythm introductions), most Chinese music is in duple rhythm. This fondness for duple rhythm (the Western equivalent of 2/4 and 4/4) can be attributed to the belief in the principle of natural duality (such as the female-male or yin-yang relationship). Chinese rhythm patterns may also reflect the Confucian Zhongyong concept: a “doctrine of the mean” that stresses moderation and balance. However, the weak-beat to strong-beat stresses in Western music are not necessarily used. Triple meter is rare, even in modern folk compositions. Syncopation, on the other hand, is the norm rather than the exception. Chinese instrumental music is traditionally heterophonic if it is performed on more than one instrument or for an instrument and voice. Although Chinese music does not use the triadic, four-part harmonic progressions of Western music, harmony may occur occasionally. In fact, the sheng mouth organ produces fourths and fifths when played in the traditional manner, and some qin and zheng zither passages have two or more pitches sounding together when the musicians pluck two or more strings simultaneously. The Chinese people's fondness for clarity may have prevented them from developing a heavy musical texture. Perhaps the most intricate aspect of traditional Chinese music, and of much East Asian music, is the use of nuance in instrumental and vocal timbre. Even when playing one instrument, there are minute differences in timbre production of a single tone. Much attention is placed on the production and control of single tones; each tone is regarded as a musical entity. The best example of this is heard in qin zither music. Vocal Music Vocal music is also complicated because of complex tonal inflections and the intricacies of the Chinese language. For example, even though Chinese words are monosyllabic, a singer takes great care in enunciating the “head” (beginning), “belly” (middle), and “tail” (end) of each word in Kun opera and Nanguan music. Therefore, timbre in Chinese music has a deeper meaning than simply tone color as an end in itself. Chinese vocal quality is often described as being high-pitched and nasal. This is generally true, but there are regional differences. The northern style of singing (such as Peking opera) tends to be higher and shriller than the southern style of singing (such as Kun opera or Nanguan). This north-south contrast in vocal quality can even be heard in the local Baiguan (northern-style theater) and Nanquan (southern-style theater or lyric song) on the island of Taiwan. Instruments Thousands of indigenous and Sinicized musical instruments exist in China, but the Chinese seem to favor chordophones and aerophones. The famous term “silk and bamboo” refers to the ancient use of stringed instruments with silk strings and wind instruments made of bamboo. Of all the chordophones, the qin zither is by far the most venerated. It is depicted in many paintings and mentioned in classic literature. Next in importance to the qin zither is the zheng zither. In the past, solos and small ensembles were more characteristic of traditional Chinese music making; the large Chinese orchestra with a baton-waving conductor is a product of the twentieth century. The pipa lute originated in Central Asia and is an instrument of great virtuosic possibilities. It is the subject of many paintings and poems and has held a societal position similar to that of the guitar in Western culture. Currently, the erhu, or two-stringed fiddle, is the most popular instrument in China. It originated in the northern tribes and is available in many sizes and variations. This fiddle is the “violin” of the modern Chinese orchestra. The sanxian lute is a banjo-like instrument that is used to accompany narrative singing. The yangqin is a many-stringed hammer dulcimer that originated in Persia. Its function is somewhat like that of the piano: it serves as either a solo instrument or an accompanying instrument. In the aerophone category, di or disi side-blown flutes are the most numerous. The xiao end-blown flute is also a popular instrument. Perhaps the most exotic wind instrument is the sheng, a mouth organ that can produce many notes simultaneously. A popular folk wind instrument is the suona, a double-reed instrument that evolved from the Middle Eastern zurna. Because of recent archaeological discoveries, Chinese musicians have had a revived interest in the ancient bianzhong (bronze bell chimes) and bianqing (stone chimes). Variations of many Chinese musical instruments can be found in Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, and Mongolia. Tradition and Folk Songs Westerners sometimes describe Chinese music as “loud.” The Chinese themselves consider the northern style more dynamic and energetic and the southern style softer and more graceful. All of these characterizations are oversimplified, as the dynamics in Chinese music actually vary according to the nature of the musical genres and instruments. The classical music of Confucian scholars, such as qin zither music and lyric songs, is naturally soft. Players of pipa lute music are capable of expressing a full range of dynamics. Music for the suona is loud and piercing because of the instrument's construction and its function as an outdoor instrument. Theater orchestra music is loud because it was originally played outdoors in a festive atmosphere. Because of the many factors affecting dynamics in Chinese music, there is no one concept that can adequately describe them. With the exception of work songs and shange (mountain songs), most Han Chinese folk songs, like most songs in Western folk music, are constructed in strophic form. Chinese folk music, however, uses fewer refrains. Typically, a folk song consists of two or four phrases of equal length; each phrase contains a new musical idea. Two-phrase songs are called “question-answer” songs, and four-phrase songs are “open” (qi), “inheriting” (cheng), “turned” (shuan), and “closed” (he) songs, all of which are terms borrowed from literary writing techniques. Much of Chinese opera music is based on a more complex melodic and rhythmic motivic system called Banqian.1 Of all the instrumental forms of Chinese music, the most popular are suites and variations. These forms are not, however, entirely equivalent to their Western counterparts. A Chinese suite is a series of musical movements that are loosely connected. These movements may be independent selections that do not have an apparent melodic or rhythmic relationship, or they may be related for programmatic reasons. A major characteristic of Chinese instrumental variations is the use of identification motives called the hetou (refrain head) or hewei (refrain tail) that appear in the beginning and end of each movement. Again, except for these refrain motives, there might be no other relationship between the variations and the refrains or among the variations themselves. Sometimes, a movement appears several times among the other movements in a suite; this is considered a variation technique. Due to Western influence, ABA form has become extremely popular in modern instrumental folk music. The Chinese have traditionally shown a fondness for extra-musical connotations, so Program music, poetic titles, and descriptions of compositions are popular. The existence of a sophisticated literary class is responsible for shaping this tradition, which is found not only in old music but also in modern socialist and so-called revolutionary work. 中国民族管弦乐概述 二千多年以前，中国已有很多的乐器：钟、磬、鼓、埙、铃等等，到了周代（约公元前1066——公元前771）和春秋战国时期（公元前475——公元前221）发展到了八十多种。秦（公元前221——公元前206）、汉（公元前206——公元前23）、三国（公元220——公元280）、晋（公元317——公元412）、南北朝（公元420——公元581）、隋唐期间（公元581——公元907），由于各族人民频繁的交流，又增加了横吹（现在的笛） 、羌笛（现在的箫）、曲项琵琶（今琵琶的前身）、筚（现在的管子）、铜 鼓、腰鼓、羯鼓等等，这些都成为现代民族乐器中的重要乐器。五代（公元907——公元979）、宋（公元960——公元1279）、元（公元1279——公元1368）、明（公元1368——公元1644）、清时期（公元1644——公元1911），由于民间文艺的兴起又出现了打击乐器：云锣、八角鼓、点鼓、小木鱼、梆子，吹奏乐器：唢呐，弹拔乐器：三弦、扬琴，拉弦乐器：二胡、板胡、京胡、坠胡等等。乐器更为齐全。 到了20世纪初，民间陆续还有新的乐器出现，如：喉管、粤胡、书鼓、简板、脚踏梆子，梨花片等等。 建国以来，由于民族音乐事业的蓬勃发展，大批久已不用的乐器如：方响，箜篌又重新回到民族乐队中来。为了适应新型民族乐队的需要,有关单位又研制出一批中音、低音乐器（如革胡）和定音的打击乐器。 同乐器一样，中国的器乐合奏在古代也很发达。在历史上，最有影响的乐队是汉代（公元前206——公元前23）的鼓吹乐，和唐代（公元618——公元907）的燕乐乐队。鼓吹乐以吹奏乐器和打击乐器为主，善于演奏粗犷豪放的音乐，而燕乐乐队是以丝竹细乐，善于演奏细腻文雅的音乐。宋代（公元960——公元1279）起由于商品经济的发达，市民阶层的大量存在，深受市民爱戴的戏曲和曲艺都有了自己的伴奏乐队。明代（公元1368——公元1644），民间又有了婚丧喜庆，迎神赛会的吹打音乐。 另外纯乐队的形成，也是经历了清唱到纯乐器演奏这样的一个历程。如：广东（中国南方）音乐，出自粤剧，福建（中国东南方）南音，出自古老的南田，潮州（中国南方）苏锣鼓，出自潮汕一带的汉剧等等。 在中国绚丽多彩的民间乐器中，兄弟民族也是一个重要的组成部分，如演奏《十二木卡姆》的西北乐队，用各种芦笙组成的西南芦笙乐队以及用马头琴、四胡、三弦等组成的北方乐队等等，这些乐队的形式也被各地乐队所采用。 建国以来随着民族音乐事业的发展，陆续建立了一些新型的民族乐队，这些乐队体现了历史上保留下来的优良传统，具有鲜明的音响、音色的独特性和施展民族风格演技的可能性，它的优势已十分明显，新型民族乐队与古代民间乐队一样，继续发挥重要和良好的作用。它已经以崭新的姿态步入世界舞台。 Derivation of National Orchestral Music More than 2,000 years ago, there were many instruments in China, including bell, chime, drum and Xun (an egg-shaped, holed wind instrument). In the Zhou Dynasty (11th century - 771BC) and Spring and Autumn (770-476BC) and Warring States (475-221BC) period, the instruments totaled 80 kinds. During the period of the Qin Dynasty (221-206BC), the Han Dynasty (206BC-25AD), the Three Kingdoms (220-280), the Jin Dynasty (317-420), the Southern and Northern Dynasties (386-589) and Sui (581-618) and Tang Dynasties (618-907), there appeared instruments of Hengchui (like today's bamboo flute), Qiangdi (a musical instrument of the Qiang), Bi, bronze drum and waist drum, etc. They were all key instruments in national orchestral music. There appeared more wind instruments, plucked string instruments and bowed string instruments during the period of the Five Dynasties (907-960), the Song Dynasty (960-1279), the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368), the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). National Orchestral Music was well developed in ancient times. The most influential orchestras in history are wind music (Guchuiyue) in the Han Dynasty and Yanyue in the Tang Dynasty (618-907). The first one mainly consists of percussion instruments and the latter one focuses on tender music. Traditional Chinese ensemble instrumental music has diverse origins, and forms of arrangement, performance and transmission. Generally speaking, geographic origin is its most distinguishing characteristic: Percussion and wind ensembles native to the northern region include Xi'an percussion and wind, Shanxi Province's Badatao, the orchestras of central Hebei Province, southwest Shandong Province's percussion and wind, Liaoning Province's percussion and wind and the Shipan music of Luoyang City. Native to the south are the gongs and drums of eastern Zhejiang Province, the shiln gongs and drums of southern Jiangsu Province and Fuzhou, the Longchui of Quanzhou and the Shifan of southwest Fujian Province. In the string and wind category are the Southern Tunes of Fujian, the poetry accompanied on string instruments of Chaozhou, Guangdong Music, the string and wind music of south of the Yangtze River and the northern string music. The distribution of the artistic groups that played the various types of Chinese folk music was connected with the system of managing music of the feudal imperial court. Generally speaking, the locations of the imperial capitals in ancient times are the centers of the transmission, orchestras and maestros of folk music today. For example, Xi'an percussion music dates from the days when Xi'an was the capital of the Tang Dynasty; the Daxiangguo Temple music of Kaifeng emerged when that city was the capital of the Song Dynasty; and the Zhihua Temple music of Beijing and the wind orchestra music of Hebei Province have associations with the days when Beijing was the capital of the Liao, Jin, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties. Hebei's Chengde City, which is not far from Beijing, was the summer resort of the Qing emperors, and local musicians can still play the court music of that time, despite the fact that the dynasty disappeared long ago. This makes it easy to understand why so many farmer-musicians can have such comparatively high artistic attainments. This is an important component of the Chinese people's musical artistry. Among the diverse musical instruments in China, those from the ethnic minorities also hold an important position, such as northwest orchestras that perform On Illi Muqam, the southwest Lusheng orchestras that use various kinds of Lusheng (reed-pipe wind instrument), and north orchestras that use horse-head stringed instrument, traditional Chinese four-stringed fiddle, Chinese trichord sanxian and so on. The forms of these orchestras are also employed by local orchestras. With the development of national orchestral music after the founding of the People's Republic of China, some new-type national musical orchestras gradually emerged. They reflect the fine Chinese tradition and feature distinct uniqueness in sound effects and tamber. New national orchestras continue to play important roles, and have embarked on the world stage. “国之瑰宝”——曾侯乙编钟 首先我们先介绍这位“曾侯乙”是何许人也？ 曾侯乙是战国时期（公元前475年——公元前221年）曾国（今天中国中部的湖北省随县、枣阳一带。）的一个诸侯，这位诸侯姓“乙”。据考证此人死于楚惠王五十六年。（公元前433年）因为他是“曾国”人，姓“乙”，又是一位诸侯，因此称他为曾侯乙。 这位姓乙的诸侯墓葬的规模是相当可观的。仅仅乐器就足以令人瞠目结舌。在他巨大的坟墓里专门有一个墓室陪葬着乐器，这些乐器有：琴、筝、五弦各一 件，瑟五件，笙一件，悬鼓一件，还有编磬、建鼓、排萧、瑟、抱鼓等等。其中最令人震惊的就是堪称“国之瑰宝”的编钟。 整套编钟共有65枚，全部是由青铜铸造异常精美。编钟依次列在曲尺型铜木结构的钟架上。上下三层，总共加起来有65枚钟。每件钟体上都镌刻有金篆体铭文，正面均刻有“曾侯乙乍时”（曾侯乙作） 曾侯乙编钟的总音域有五个八度，仅次于现代的钢琴。可以奏出五声、六声或七声音阶的音乐。现代学者推断这套编钟不但可以演奏旋律，还可以演奏和声。 两千年前就有如此精美的乐器，如此恢宏的乐队，在世界文化史上极为罕见。这不仅表明我国古代青铜业的成就，也表明了中国古代音律发达的程度。 Zeng Houyi Bells: Gem of Ancient Chinese Art The set of bells, set of chimes and other instruments excavated from the tomb of Zeng Houyi, who was a Warring States duke in Suixian County (now Suizhou City in Hubei Province), are the largest-scale ancient percussion instruments found so far. The musical instruments were discovered in the central chamber, which was the biggest, and the second biggest, the eastern chamber. Among the musical instruments found was a bell used for tuning other instruments, a ten-stringed plucked instrument, five Se (a zither-like instrument) with 25 strings each, two Yu (or Sheng) and one hanging drum. The other instruments found were three Xiao (a reed instrument consisting of a bundle of 13 flutes, each of different thickness), two Chi (a flute with a closed tube, blown transversely, with the air exit on top, and the five finger holes open "forward"-- toward the player. The method of playing the Chi, by opening and closing holes, bespeaks a close relationship with the ocarina), seven 35-stringed Se and a small drum. The most distinguished among them were Zeng Houyi bells -- the gem of ancient Chinese Art: The Zeng Houyi bells The Zeng Houyi bells are a three-tiered set which has 65 refined bronze bells, including a large Jian drum (90cm in diameter, the drum was suspended from a framework in such a way that the drum head faced the striker), one set of bells and one set of chimes. They formed the three sides of a rectangle. The musical range of the Zeng Houyi bells, which can carry the main melody as well as the harmony, was more than five octaves, and of these three distinct groups have 12 complete notes each. All the musical instruments excavated from the Zeng Houyi tomb show superb craftsmanship and function surprisingly well. Indeed, some could not be surpassed even today. == 武术概述 中国武术又称“国术”或“武艺”，是中国传统体育项目。其内容是把踢、打、摔、拿、跌、击、劈、刺等动作按照一定规律组成徒手的和器械的各种攻防格斗功夫、套路和单势练习。中国武术不仅是一种中国传统的体育运动形式，而且是一个完整的文化意识形态，它涵容了中国古典哲学、伦理学、美学，医学、兵学等中国传统文化的各种成分和要素，渗透着中国传统文化的精髓。武术具有极其广泛的群众基础，是中国人民在长期的社会实践中不断积累和丰富起来的一项宝贵的文化遗产。 武术最初作为军事训练手段，与古代军事斗争紧密相连，其技击的特性是显而易见的。在实用中，其目的在于杀伤、制服对方，它常常以最有效的技击方法，迫使对方失去反抗能力。这些技击术至今仍在军队、公安中被采用。武术作为体育运动，技术上仍不失攻防技击的特性、而是将技击寓于搏斗运动与套路运动之中。搏斗运动集中体现了武术攻防格斗的特点，在技术上与实用技击基本上是一致的，但是从体育的观念出发，它受到竞赛规则的制约，以不伤害对方为原则。如在散手中对武术中有些传统的实用技击方法作了限制，而且严格规定了击打部位和保护护具，短兵中使用的器具也作了相应的变化，而推手则是在特殊的技术规定下进行竞技对抗的。因此，可以说武术的搏斗运动具有很强的攻防技击性，但又与实用技击有所区别。 中国武术分类有以地区划分的，有以山脉、河流划分的，有以姓氏或内外家划分的，也有按技术特点划分的。按其运动形式可分为：套路运动和搏斗运动两大类。套路运动，是以技击动作为素材，以攻守进退、动静疾徐、刚柔虚实等运动的变化规律编成的整套练习形式。套路运动按练习形式又可分为单练、对练和集体演练三种类型。单练包括徒手的拳术与器械。对练包括徒手的对练、器械对练、徒手与器械对练。集体演练分徒手的拳术、器械或徒手与器械。 Chinese Wushu Wushu, or Martial Art, is an important component of the cultural heritage of China, with a rich content over the centuries. Literally, "Wu" means military, and "Shu" means art. Wushu therefore means the art of fighting, or martial arts. Martial training includes Ti (kicking), Da (punching), Shuai (throwing), Na (controlling), Ji (hitting), Ci (thrusting), etc. Related to each style are basic forms, or sequences, which may involve defense strategies, offense, retreat, mobility and immobility, speed and slowness, hard or soft postures, emptiness and fullness, with or without weapons. Wushu was born and has steadily grown and attained perfection as an integral part of Chinese culture. As such it is bound to be influenced and conditioned by other forms of culture, first and foremost by philosophy, art and literature, and religion. Wushu reigns as one of the most traditional and popular national sport in China, practiced by the young and old alike. Wushu was originally a military training method, bearing a close relationship with ancient combats. Practical skills, such as strength training, fencing, staff sparring, spear training, etc., are still used now by policemen and soldiers. Today Wushu has been organized and systematized into a formal branch of study in the performance arts and has become an athletic and aesthetic performance and competitive sport. Every movement must exhibit sensible combat application and aestheticism. Chinese Wushu is classified into various styles according to different regions, different schools and families, as well as different fighting techniques. Routines are performed solo, paired or in groups, either barehanded or armed with traditional Chinese weaponry. Wushu can be viewed in terms of two categories, including Taolu (Forms with or without weapons) and Sanshou (Free Sparring). Taolu is a performance of set offensive and defensive Wushu movements based on Chinese Wushu principles. It includes the following four main categories: Bare-Handed Forms, Weapon Forms, Duilian, and Group Forms. Duilian form consists of sets of offensive and defensive movements for two or more practitioners in mock combat routines. They usually include three groups -- Bare-handed vs. Bare-handed, Weapon(s) vs. Weapon(s), and Bare-handed vs. Weapon(s). Group Forms are usually for demonstrations only and performed with or without weapons by a group of six or more persons. Wushu's emphasis has shifted from combat to performance, and it is practiced for its method of achieving health, self-defense skills, mental discipline, recreational pursuit and competition. In 1990, Wushu was adopted as an official medal event in the Asian Games, and since then World Championships have been held with 56 nations participating. Now Wushu is vying for the Olympic Games in the 21st century. 少林武术 少林武术是中国最有影响的一个武术流派，因形成于少林寺而得名。 少林寺位于中国中部河南省登封县嵩岳少室山北麓玉乳峰下，始建于北魏孝文帝太和十九年。据史料记载，少林寺习武始于南北朝而盛于隋唐，后又汇集各家之长而逐渐形成为中国最大的武术流派。它的支脉繁衍，遍及各地。 少林武术在国内外均享有盛名。它以强身健体、去病延年、保护名山、镇守古刹、防身抗暴、杀敌制胜为目的。以朴实无华、套路繁多、功法繁衍、内外武功著称。以技击性强、利于实战为风格。以拳打一条线、威发卧牛地、打人不见形、打了还嫌迟、内静外猛、刚中透柔、劲似曲蓄而有余、借力打人、四两拨千斤、拳打一气连等特点，而独创一家，在国内外均享有盛名。 少林武术的内容包括：拳术、器械、散打、把头、点穴、卸骨、擒拿。 Shaolin Wushu Shaolin Wushu (Shaolin Martial Art) is one of the most influential genres of Chinese martial art, and it's named after the Shaolin Temple located in Dengfeng County, Henan Province. The monks in the Shaolin Temple began to study martial art during the Southern and Northern Dynasties and this tradition prevailed during the Sui and the Tang dynasties (581-907). Shaolin Wushu is famous both at home and abroad as a highly effective method of self-defense and health-building. Combining both external and internal, and "hard" and "soft" exercises, Shaolin Wushu involves various methods of fighting techniques, consisting of barehanded boxing and weaponry combat. The Shaolin boxing has compactly designed routines. Its movements are quick, powerful and flexible; both practical for defense and attack. The most outstanding characteristic of Shaolin boxing is that the practitioner works on one straight line. It means that his movements of advancing, retreating, turning around, sideways, or jumping are restrained on one line. His arms are kept slightly bent so that he can stretch out to attack or withdraw freely for self defense. Another characteristic of Shaolin Wushu is to maintain the body in perfect balance, as stable as a mountain. The practitioners should keep a tranquil mind but strike with great force and speed. He should be good at "borrowing" force from the opponent. That is, he should not meet the opponent's strikes head-on, but take advantage of the striker's force and go along with it to bring him to ward off a force of a thousand weights. The practitioner should know how to make feigned strikes and when striking, hit the vital parts of the opponent. The movements should be as dextrous as a cat, the shaking as a tiger, the moving as a dragon, the advancing as lightning and the yelling as thunder. Shaolin Wushu is a very convenient sport, for the practice does not need a large space and is not affected by weather or the kind of weapons used. There are many routines. External exercises include Minor Hong Boxing, Greater Hong Boxing, Old Hong Boxing, Chaoyang Boxing, Chang Boxing, Plum Blossom Boxing, Cannon Boxing, Luohan Buddha Boxing, Tongbei Boxing, Seven-star Boxing, Dragon-out-of-the-sea Boxing and Shooting-star Boxing; for internal exercises there are Xingyi Boxing and Juji Boxing. Shaolin boxing can be practiced singly or in pairs. The dual routines include: Banshou Liuhe Boxing, Yaoshou Liuhe Boxing and Kick and Strike Liuhe Boxing. 太极拳 太极拳，中国拳术之一，早期曾称为“长拳”、“棉拳”、“十三势”、“软手”。至清朝乾隆年间（公元1736～1796年），山西人王宗岳著《太极拳论》，才确定了太极拳的名称。“太极”一词源出《周易·系词》，含有至高、至极、绝对、唯一的意思。 关于太极拳的起源，众说纷纭，大致有唐朝（公元618～907年）许宣平、宋朝（公元960～1278年）张三峰、明朝（公元1368～1644年）张三丰、清朝（公元1644～1911年）陈王廷和王宗岳等几种不同的说法。但现在多数拳家亦以现传各式太极拳俊源出陈式太极拳之说为本。 太极拳综合吸收了明代名家拳法，特别是戚继光的三十二式长拳，并结合了古代导引、吐纳气功之术和中医经络学说，以及古代阴阳五行学说，以道教、太极八卦等理论为太极拳的哲学基础，综合而成。 太极拳以“棚、捋、挤、按、瘛 、肘、靠、进、退、顾、盼、定”等为基本方法。动作徐缓舒畅，要求练拳时正腰、收颚、直背、垂间，有飘然腾云之意境。清代拳师称“拳如大海，滔滔而不绝”。同时，太极拳还很重视练气，所谓“气”，就是修炼人体自身的精神力，这是太极拳作为内家功夫的特点之一。 目前，太极拳有陈式、杨式、孙式、吴式、武式五种流派。明末清初，河南温县陈家沟的老拳师陈王庭初创太极拳，世代相传。河北永年人杨露禅从学于陈家沟陈长兴，并与其子杨健侯、其孙杨澄甫等人在陈式太极拳的基础上，创编发展了“杨式太极拳”。清末河北永年人武禹襄在杨露禅从陈家沟返乡后，深爱其术，从学杨于陈式老架太极拳，后又从陈清平学赵堡架，经过修改，创造了“武式太极拳”。河北完县人孙禄堂，从师李魁垣学形意拳，继而学于李魁垣的师傅郭云深，又从师于程廷华学八卦掌。后又从师郝为真学太极拳，之后参合八卦、形意、太极三家拳术的精义，融合一体而创“孙式太极拳”。 Tai Ji Quan Tai Ji Quan is a major division of Chinese martial art. Tai Ji Quan means "supreme ultimate fist". Tai means "Supreme", Ji means "Ultimate", and Quan means "Fist". There have been different sayings about the origin of Tai Ji Quan. The traditional legend goes that the wise man Zhang Sanfeng of the Song Dynasty (960-1279) created Tai Ji Quan after he had witnessed a fight between a sparrow and a snake; while most people agreed that the modern Tai Ji Quan originated from Chen style Tai Ji Quan, which first appeared during the 19th century in the Daoguang Reign of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). Tai Ji Quan has its philosophical roots in Taoism and is considered as an internal martial art, utilizing the internal energy, or Qi, and following the simple principle of "subduing the vigorous by the soft". Taoism is the oldest philosophy of China which is represented by the famous symbol of the Yin and Yang which expresses the continuous flow of Qi in a circular motion that generates two opposite forces, plus and minus, which interact and balance with each others to bring existence to the physical and metaphysical world. The most famous forms of Tai Ji Quan practiced today are the Chen, Yang, Wu, Wu and Sun styles. All the five styles can be traced back to Chen style Tai Ji Quan. According to historical records, Tai Ji Quan was founded by Chen Wangting (1597-1664), who lived in Chen Village, in today's Henan Province in China. Based on the Chen style and created by Yang Luchan, a Hebei native of the Qing Dynasty, the Yang style is now the most popular style worldwide. The Woo Style is based on the Chen and Yang styles and created by Woo Yuxing. The Sun style is derived from Chen and Woo styles and created by Sun Lutang. The Sun style is a combination of the more famous internal Chinese martial art forms of Ba Gua, Xing Yi and Tai Ji. The Wu style is based on Chen and Yang styles, and it was created by Wu Jianquan. Nowadays, when most people talk about Tai Ji Quan, they are usually referring to the Yang style, which has already spread throughout the world and is practiced by millions of people. 中国功夫 Chinese Kung Fu As man became more skillful in hunting and warfare, he also gradually developed dance for entertainment and relaxation. Early records suggest that dance was often the imitation of various animal movements, hence the Monkey Dance, the Bear Dance, the Bird Dance, and so on. The Book of History refers to them as 'the dances of hundred animals'. In addition, rudimentary sports appeared, such as Dance with Shield and Battle-Axe and Butting with Horns, both military exercises. The Dance with Shield and Axe, which was a martial dance depicting battle and training troops, demonstrate the early relationship between dance and fighting skill. Butting with Horns was competitive wrestling practiced by the soldiers. This sport was said to have been a training method before battle by the armies of the legendary Chiyou tribe of eastern China. The soldiers wore horns on their heads as a symbol of courage, and then butted each other during the contest. It was tradition that every feast should have a dance performance, which by the Han time would often take the form of a sword dance. Unarmed combat contest were also popular during the Han Dynasty. The rapid development in cavalry warfare of this period led to further improvements in skill using bladed weapons. According to the Book of Zhuang Zi, unarmed combat was a highly developed skill by the end of this period, with many methods of attack, defense, counter-attack and feints. Fencing was also fairly common at that time. It was especially popular among the people of the states of Wu, Yue and Zhao. Competitions were frequent, but because contestants wore inadequate protection, injuries were common during the bouts. In one fencing competition in the state of Zhao, more than 60 people were killed or wounded over a period of 7 days. In the state of Wu, scars on the body of face were common sight among the people. Nevertheless, the love of fencing went unabated among women as well as men. By the Qin Dynasty (221 - 207BC), competitions had developed stricter rules with referees, arenas and protective clothing. During the Han Dynasty (206BC - AD220), Kung Fu was developed further, the element of sport and dance now becoming more apparent. Many martial dances appeared, such as the Rapier Dance, the Broadsword Dance, the Twin-Halberd Dance and the Battle-Axe Dance. While these dances contained elements of attack and defense, other postures and techniques evolved which were designed clearly for callisthenic purposes. An historic record in 108 B.C. tells how people came from as far as 300 li (150km) around the capital to see a contest. Kung Fu could be defined as any of the various Chinese martial arts. Chinese Kung Fu was studied, organized and systematized by the Shaolin monks. Shaolin Kung Fu is known for their many animal styles such as Tiger, Crane, Dragon, Monkey, Praying Mantis and Snake. The word Kung Fu was originally used by the West. It means "skill" or "ability". It literally does not have anything to do with martial arts such as the word Tae Kwon Do, which means The Way of the Hand and Feet. In China today, Wushu is the preferred word to describe Chinese Martial Arts. The word Kung Fu was first used by a western Jesuit Missionary named Pere Amoit after witnessing exercises and training regimen in China. He called it "Cong Fou" in his personal journals. The term "Kuo-Shu" was popular in China until about 1930. This term has since been popularized by the Taiwanese Government to describe Chinese Martial Arts. == 故宫 故宫博物院是在明、清两代皇宫及其收藏的基础上建立起来的中国综合性博物馆。其位于北京市中心，前通天安门，后倚景山，东近王府井街市，西临中南海。1961年，经国务院批准，故宫被定为全国第一批重点文物保护单位。1987年，故宫被联合国教科文组织列入“世界文化遗产”名录。 依照中国古代星象学说，紫微垣（即北极星）位于中天，乃天帝所居，天人对应，是以皇帝的居所又称紫禁城。明代第三位皇帝朱棣在夺取帝位后，决定迁都北京，即开始营造这座宫殿，至明永乐十八年（1420年）落成。1911年，辛亥革命推翻了中国最后的封建帝制--清王朝，1924年逊帝溥仪被逐出宫禁。在这前后五百余年中，共有24位皇帝曾在这里生活居住和对全国实行统治。 紫禁城，四面环有高10m的城墙和宽52m的护城河。城南北长961m，东西宽753m，占地面积达780,000㎡。城墙四面各设城门一座，其中南面的午门和北面的神武门现专供参观者游览出入。城内宫殿建筑布局沿中轴线向东西两侧展开。红墙黄瓦，画栋雕梁，金碧辉煌。殿宇楼台，高低错落，壮观雄伟。朝暾夕曛中，仿若人间仙境。城之南半部以太和、中和、保和三大殿为中心，两侧辅以文华、武英两殿，是皇帝举行朝会的地方，称为“前朝”。北半部则以乾清、交泰、坤宁三宫及东西六宫和御花园为中心，其外东侧有奉先、皇极等殿，西侧有养心殿、雨花阁、慈宁宫等，是皇帝和后妃们居住、举行祭祀和宗教活动以及处理日常政务的地方，称为“后寝”。前后两部分宫殿建筑总面积达163,000㎡。整组宫殿建筑布局谨严，秩序井然，寸砖片瓦皆遵循着封建等级礼制，映现出帝王至高无上的权威。在封建帝制时代，普通的人民群众是不能也不敢靠近它一步的。 辛亥革命后，这座宫殿本应全部收归国有，但按照那时拟定的《清室优待条件》，逊帝溥仪却被允许“暂居宫禁”，即“后寝”部分。当时的政府决定，将热河（承德）行宫和盛京（沈阳）故宫的文物移至故宫的“前朝”部分，于1914年成立了“古物陈列所”。溥仪居宫内，一直与亡清残余势力勾结，图谋复辟，且以赏赐、典当、修补等名目，从宫中盗窃大量文物，引起了社会各界的严重关注。1924年，冯玉祥发动“北京政变”，将溥仪逐出宫禁，同时成立“清室善后委员会”，接管了故宫，对宫内文物进行清点。又经过一年的紧张筹备，于1925年10月10日在乾清门前广场举行了盛大的建院典礼，并通电全国，宣布故宫博物院正式成立。开放的第一天，人们以争先一睹这座神秘的皇宫及其宝藏为快，北京市内万人空巷，交通为之堵塞，此亦成为当天各大报纸的重大新闻。 经初步清点，清代宫廷遗留下来的文物，据1925年公开出版的二十八册《清室善后委员会点查报告》一书所载，计有一百一十七万余件，包括三代鼎彝、远古玉器、唐宋元明之法书名画、宋元陶瓷、珐琅、漆器、金银器、竹木牙角匏、金铜宗教造像以及大量的帝后妃嫔服饰、衣料和家具等等。可谓金翠珠玉，奇珍异宝，天下财富，尽聚于此。除此之外，还有大量图书典籍、文献档案。为此故宫博物院下设古物馆、图书馆、文献馆，分别组织人力继续对文物进行整理，并就宫内开辟展室，举办各种陈列，还编辑出版多种刊物，公开资料，进行宣传。各项工作开展得有声有色，人文荟萃，极一时之盛。 第二次世界大战全面爆发前夕，日本帝国主义鲸吞了中国东北领土，步步进逼华北，形势危急。为了保护故宫文物不至遭战火毁灭或被日本帝国主义掠夺，故宫博物院决定采取文物避敌南迁之策。从1933年2月至5月，宫内重要文物被装成13,427箱又64包，分五批先运抵上海，后又运至南京。遂于南京建立文物库房，并成立了故宫博物院南京分院。1937年，“七·七卢沟桥事变”爆发，抗日战争全面展开。南迁文物又沿三路辗转迁徙至四川，分别存于四川省的巴县、峨嵋和乐山。直到抗日战争胜利后，三处文物复集中于重庆，于1947年运回南京。在中国人民解放军即将渡江之际，自1948年底至1949年初，南京国民党政府从南京库房中挑选出2,972箱文物运往台湾，后于台北市士林外双溪建立新馆，公开对外展出。余下的大批文物，在1949年以后陆续运回故宫博物院一万余箱，但至今还有2,221箱仍封存于南京库房，委托南京博物院代为保管。在这场长达十余年的惨烈的战争期间，由于故宫博物院的工作人员不畏艰难险阻，尽职尽责，南迁文物数量虽巨，却没有一件丢失和损伤，故宫人员的精神、事迹，可歌可泣。可又是因为这场战争，致使故宫的文物分处异地。这份祖国传统文化之珍藏应是一个整体，而尤与紫禁城建筑不可分离，人们相信，终有一日，其终将得以完璧。 中华人民共和国成立后，故宫博物院的职工以崭新的精神面貌投入工作。拔除杂草，疏通河道，清理垃圾。50年代初，从宫内清除出去的上百年的垃圾竟达250,000立方米，自此院容焕然一新。故宫博物院制定了“着重保护、重点修缮、全面规划、逐步实施”的古建维修方针，经过几十年的努力，许多残破、渗漏、瀕临倒塌的大小殿堂楼阁得到了修复和油饰，愈显金碧辉煌。院内各处高大宫殿都安装了避雷设施，又以巨额投资建设了防火防盗监控系统和高压消防给水管网，使这座古老的宫殿建筑得到了更加有效的保护。特别是改革开放后，在人民政府的大力支持下，彻底整治了环绕故宫的筒子河，更好地凸现了昔日皇城的风貌。 在文物工作方面，五六十年代的重点是对故宫博物院旧藏的清宫文物重新清点核对，登记造册，进行鉴别、分类和建档，纠正了过去计件不确之处并增补了遗漏的文物，例如从杂物堆中发现了用草帘裹着的象牙席、修复漱芳斋戏台时发现在地板下存放的传为唐代卢棱伽的《六尊者像》册等。通过长达十余年的工作，总计清理出清宫旧藏文物七十一万余件。与此同时，还通过国家调拨、向社会征集和接受私人捐赠等方式，新入藏文物达二十二万余件之多，大幅度地填补了清宫旧藏文物时代、类别的空缺和不足，诸如石器时代的彩陶，商、周时代的青铜器、玉器，汉代的陶俑，南北朝时代的石造像，唐代的三彩等。而新入藏的古代法书名画尤为大宗，为世所注目。如晋代陆机《平复帖》、王珣《伯远帖》、顾恺之《洛神赋图卷》，隋代展子虔《游春图卷》，唐代韩滉《五牛图卷》、杜牧《张好好诗卷》，五代顾闳中《韩熙载夜宴图卷》，宋代李公麟《临韦偃牧放图卷》、郭熙《窠石平远图》、张择端《清明上河图卷》等，均是人间瑰宝。此项工作数十年坚持不懈，近年还从市场上以巨资购回宋代张先《十咏图卷》，元代迺贤《城南詠古诗》，明代沈周《仿黄公望富春山居图卷》，清代石涛《高呼与可图卷》等，尤其前两件是溥仪以赏溥杰为名从宫中盗出而流散民间的，今日复归宝藏。 为保护好这批数量巨大的古物瑰宝，从五六十年代起对原有库房进行了大规模的修整，采取了防潮、防虫的各种措施。九十年代后又建立了新的文物库房，可入藏文物六十余万件。新库房恒温、恒湿，防火、防盗，并采用现代化技术自动控制，可保文物安全无虞。自1950年开始，组建了文物修复工厂，1980年扩建为文物保护科学技术部，继承、利用传统工艺技术和引进自然科学新成果，对残损的文物进行修复，数十年来为本院及兄弟单位累计修复文物达十一万余件。 为了使院藏瑰宝和广大观众见面，在陈列展览方面，除了保存和复原三大殿、后三宫和西六宫等处的原状陈列之外，又不定期开辟了青铜、陶瓷、工艺、书画、珍宝、钟表等专馆，供参观者欣赏。还开设有临时展厅，举办各种主题性展览，如近年来的《古书画真伪对比展》、《古陶瓷真仿品对比及古窑址资料展》、《清代宫廷包装艺术展》、《五十年入藏文物精品展》等，都是广受社会各界欢迎的展览。同时也引进国内各兄弟博物馆和国外的收藏文物展。为满足广大群众的要求，故宫博物院还组织小型文物展到各省市博物馆展出，并应邀到国外举办各种形式的展览，特别是改革开放以来，此类展览愈见频繁。曾赴展的国家有英国、美国、法国、前苏联、德国、奥地利、西班牙、澳大利亚、日本、新加坡等，所到之处，无不引起当地观众的极大兴趣，使异国的人民得以了解中华民族悠久的历史和光辉灿烂的民族文化艺术，为促进我国与世界各国人民的友好关系和文化交流作出了应有的贡献。 近十几年来，故宫博物院平均每年接待中外观众600-800万人次，而且，随着旅游事业的发展，观众的人数有增无减，可见人们对紫禁城的兴趣长盛不衰。 The Palace Museum The Palace Museum, historically and artistically one of the most comprehensive Chinese museums, was established on the foundation of the palace that was the ritual center of two dynasties, the Ming and the Qing, and their collections of treasures. Designated by the State Council as one of China's foremost protected monuments in 1961, the Palace Museum was also made a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987. Situated at the heart of Beijing, the Palace Museum is approached through Tiananmen Gate. Immediately to the north of the Palace Museum is Prospect Hill (also called Coal Hill), while on the east and west are Wangfujing and Zhongnanhai neighborhoods. It is a location endowed with cosmic significance by ancient China's astronomers. Correlating the emperor's abode, which they considered the pivot of the terrestrial world, with the Pole Star (Ziweiyuan), which they believed to be at the center of the heavens, they called the palace The Purple Forbidden City. The Forbidden City was built from 1406 to 1420 by the third Ming emperor Yongle who, upon usurping the throne, determined to move his capital north from Nanjing to Beijing. In 1911 the Qing dynasty fell to the republican revolutionaries. The last emperor, Puyi, continued living in the palace after his abdication until 1924. Twenty-four emperors lived and ruled from this palace during this 500-year span. The Forbidden City is surrounded by 10-metre high walls and a 52-metre wide moat. Measuring 961 meters from north to south and 753 meters from east to west, it covers an area of 720,000 square meters. Each of four sides is pierced by a gate, such as Meridian Gate (Wu men) on the south and Spiritual Valor Gate (Shenwu men) on the north used as entrance and exit for tourists today. Once inside, visitors will see a succession of halls and palaces spreading out on either side of an invisible central axis. It is a magnificent sight, the buildings' glowing yellow roofs against vermilion walls, not to mention their painted ridges and carved beams, all contributing to the sumptuous effect. Known as the Outer Court, the southern portion of the Forbidden City centers on the halls of Supreme Harmony, Central Harmony, and Preserving Harmony. These are flanked by the halls of Literary Glory and Military Eminence. It was here that the emperor held court and conducted his grand audiences. Mirroring this arrangement is the Inner Court at the northern end of the Forbidden City, with the Palace of Heavenly Purity, the Hall of Union, and the Palace of Earthly Tranquility straddling the central axis, surrounded by the Six Palaces of the East and West and the Imperial Garden to the north. Other major buildings include the halls for Worshipping Ancestors and of Imperial Splendor on the east, and the Hall of Mental Cultivation, the Pavilion of the Rain of Flowers and the Palace of Benevolent Tranquility on the west. These contain not only the residences of the emperor and his empress, consorts and concubines but also the venues for religious rites and administrative activities. In total, the buildings of the two courts account for an area of some 163,000 square meters. These were laid out precisely in accordance with a code of architectural hierarchy, which designated specific features to reflect the paramount authority and status of the emperor. No ordinary mortal would have been allowed or even dared to come within close proximity of these buildings. After the republican revolution, this Palace as a whole would have been sequestered by the Nationalist government were it not for the "Articles of Favorable Treatment of the Qing House" which allowed Puyi to live on in the Inner Court after his abdication. Meanwhile, all of the imperial treasures from palaces in Rehe (today's Chengde) and Mukden (today's Shenyang) were moved to the Forbidden City for public display in History Museum established at the Outer Court in 1914. While confined to the Inner Court, Puyi continuously used such vestiges of influence as still remained to plot his own restoration. He also systematically stole or pawned a huge number of cultural relics under the pretext of granting them as rewards to his courtiers and minions or taking them out for repair. In 1924, during a coup launched by the warlord Feng Yuxiang, Puyi was expelled from the Forbidden City and the management of the palace fell to the charge of a committee set up to deal with the concerns of the deposed imperial family. The committee began a sorting and counting of the imperial treasures. A year of intense preparations later, its members arranged a grand ceremony on 10 October 1925 in front of the Palace of Heavenly Purity to mark the inception of the Palace Museum. News of the opening flashed across the nation, and such was the scramble of visitors on the first day that traffic jams around Beijing brought the city almost to a standstill. According to a 28-volume inventory published in 1925, the treasure trove left by the Qing numbered more than 1,170,000 items including sacrificial vessels and ancient jade artifacts from the earliest dynasties; paintings and calligraphy from the Tang, Song, Yuan and Ming dynasties; porcelain from the Song and Yuan; a variety of enamelware and lacquer ware; gold and silver ornaments; relics in bamboo, wood, horn and gourds; religious statues in gold and bronze; as well as numerous imperial robes and ornaments; textiles; and furniture. In addition, there were countless books, literary works and ancient records. All these were divided into separate collections of antiquities, library materials and historical documents and placed under teams of staff to sort and collate. Exhibition halls were opened to display some of the treasures, while writers and editors worked away at publishing in book or journal form all the new areas of research and academic inquiry that the establishment of the museum had ushered in. The Palace Museum was soon a hive of activity. Shortly before the outbreak of World War II, the Japanese, having annexed territory in China's northeast, proceeded to march on Beijing. With this looming threat, the museum authorities decided to evacuate its collection rather than let it fall into enemy hands or risk destruction in battle. For four frantic months between February and May 1933, the most important pieces in the collection were packed into 13,427 crates and 64 bundles and sent to Shanghai in five batches. From there they were dispatched to Nanjing where a depository was built and a branch of the Palace Museum established. On 7 July 1937 shots fired around Marco Polo Bridge west of Beijing heralded the eruption of the Sino-Japanese War. Within a year, the Japanese had penetrated to most of eastern China. Now the treasures stored in Nanjing had to be moved again, this time by three routes to Sichuan, where they were secreted in three locations, Baxian, Emei and Leshan. Only at the end of the war were they consolidated in Chongqing, whence they were returned to Nanjing in 1947. By then the Nationalists were considerably weakened, and with the imminent takeover by the Communist armies of areas south of the Yangtze, they began their retreat to Taiwan. Between the end of 1948 and the dawn of 1949, the Nationalists picked relics to fill 2,972 crates for shipping across the Strait. A rival Palace Museum was set up in Taipei to display these antiquities. Most of what was left was gradually returned to Beijing, although by now 2,221 crates remain in safe-keeping storage in Nanjing. During this tumultuous decade of war and revolution, not one item of the treasures was lost or damaged even though the volume involved was enormous. This was largely due to the dedicated energy of the Palace Museum staff, whose achievement in preserving these treasures was nothing short of heroic. But it was also as a result of this long period of upheaval that the treasures have been dispersed. Yet the rationale for keeping the collection together, representative as it is of the motherland's traditional culture, seems so incontestable that most people believe the treasures will be re-united one day. In the early 1950s, shortly after the establishment of the People's Republic, the Palace Museum staff worked with a new will and enthusiasm to return the Forbidden City to its former glory. Where previously the dirty and dilapidated halls and courts lay under weeds and piles of rubbish, some 250,000 cubic meters of accumulated debris were now cleared out, giving the place a sparkling fresh look. A policy of comprehensive rehabilitation was also launched, and in time the crumbling palace buildings, repaired, and redecorated, looked resplendent once more. All the tall buildings were equipped with lightning conductors, while modern systems of fire protection and security were installed. It has been a priority of the People's Government, particularly since the beginning of the reform era in the early 1980s, to keep the surrounding moat dredged and clean. As for the collection of antiquities, a systematic inventory was completed during the 1950s and 1960s, redressing the legacy of inaccurate cataloguing. The collection was moreover augmented, for example by the salvage of a number of precious artifacts from a jumble of apparently worthless objects. After more than a decade of painstaking efforts, some 710,000 relics from the Qing palace were retrieved. At the same time, through national allocations, requisitions and private donations, more than 220,000 additional pieces of cultural significance were added, making up for such omissions from the original Qing collection as colored earthenware from the Stone Age, bronzes and jades from the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, pottery tomb figurines from the Han Dynasty, stone sculpture from the Northern and Southern Dynasties, and tri-color glazed pottery from the Tang Dynasty. The ancient paintings, scrolls and calligraphy added to the collection were particularly spectacular. These included, from the Jin Dynasty, Lu Ji's cursive calligraphy "A consoling letter" (Ping fu tie), Wang Xun's " Letter to Boyuan (Bo yuan tie) and Gu Kaizhi's "Goddess of the Luo River" (Luo shen fu tu); from the Sui Dynasty, Zhan Ziqian's landscape handscroll "Spring Outing" (You chun tu) ; from the Tang Dynasty, Han Huang's "Five Oxen" (Wu niu tu ), Du Mu's running-cursive script handscroll "Song of the Courtesan Zhan Haohao" (Zhang haohao shi) ; from the Five Dynasties, Gu Hongzhong's "The Night Revels of Han Xizai" (Han Xizai yeyan tu) "; from the Song Dynasty, Li Gonglin's "Painting after Wei Yan's Pasturing Horses" (Lin Wei Yan mu fang tu) Guo Xi's "Dry tree and rock, level distance landscape" (Ke shi pingyuan tu), and Zhang Zeduan's "Going up River on Spring Festival" (Qingming shang he tu)--all masterpieces without exception. Unremitting though this attempt at recovery has been, however, there have been further exertions in recent years to acquire such works as Zhang Xian's "Landscape with Poems (Shi yong tu)" (Song Dynasty), Nai Xian's calligraphy "Ancient poem on south of the city" (Cheng nan yong gu shi) (Yuan Dynasty), Shen Zhou's landscape handscroll "After Huang Gongwang's 'Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains'" (Fang Huang Gongwang fuchun shan ju tu) (Ming Dynasty), Shi Tao's ink bamboo "Calling Wen Yuke" (Gao hu Yu ke tu) (Qing Dynasty). The first two were spirited out of the palace by the last emperor Puyi on the excuse of bestowing them on his brother Pu Jie; they fell into the hands of others and only now have been returned to their rightful place in the Palace Museum collection. From the 1950s onwards, the museum's existing storehouses were completely overhauled to provide a damp-proof and insect-proof environment for the treasures. In the 1990s a new storehouse with a capacity of over 600,000 items was built, equipped with controls for maintaining constant temperature and humidity, as well as safeguards against fire and theft. A workshop was established in the 1950s and expanded in the 1980s to encompass a scientific Conservation Department. These not only continued traditions of craftsmanship, but also drew upon scientific discoveries to facilitate the restoration of damaged relics. In the past few decades the Conservation Department has treated as many as 110,000 objects from the Palace Museum and other public collections. Besides its continuous refurbishment of the main courts and halls, the museum has opened galleries to display bronzes, porcelain, crafts, paintings and calligraphy, jewelry, and clocks to expand the scope of its exhibitions. A number of thematic shows have been held in galleries devoted to temporary exhibitions; in recent years these have included such acclaimed ones as "A Comparison of Authentic and Counterfeit Paintings and Calligraphy", "Genuine and Imitation Examples of Ancient Porcelain and Materials from Ancient Kilns", "The Art of Packaging at the Qing Court" and "Selections from the Finest Acquisitions of the Last Fifty Years". Traveling exhibitions have also graced various provincial museums and museums abroad. In fact, since the beginning of the economic-reform era, an increasing number of exhibitions have been mounted in countries such as Britain, the USA, France, the former Soviet Union, Germany, Austria, Spain, Australia, Japan and Singapore, among others. All of them have aroused great interest and admiration and played a key part in the promotion of international understanding and cultural exchange. The number of visitors to the Palace Museum has risen along with the growth of tourism, in the last decade reaching six to eight million a year. 北京颐和园 1998年11月，北京颐和园被联合国教科文组织评为”世界文化遗产”6。 北京颐和园，是我国古典园林之首，也是世界著名园林之一。它坐落在北京西郊，离京城约10公里。 颐和园初为金贞元元年（1153年）建的帝王行宫，明代改名好山园，清乾隆十五年（1750年）扩建，名清漪园。1888年，慈禧挪用海军经费重建，竣工后改成颐和园。 颐和园由万寿山和昆明湖组成，战地290公顷。其中，昆明湖约占全园面积的3/4，环绕山、湖间是一组组精美的建筑物。全园分三个区域： 以仁寿殿为中心的政治活动区；以玉澜堂、乐寿堂为主题的帝后活动区；以万寿山与昆明湖组成的风景旅游区。全园以西山群峰为借景，加之建筑群与园内 山湖形势溶为一体，使景色变幻无穷。万寿山前山的建筑群是全园精华之处。排云殿、佛香阁、智慧海等组成的中轴线的建筑两侧，配以转轮藏、五方阁、宝云阁、组成了一组依山而建、统率全园的主景群。佛香阁高41米，建筑在20米高的石造台基上，是颐和园的象征。登上佛香阁远眺，是一大美景。以排云殿为中心的一组宫殿式建筑群，是当年慈禧太后过生日接受贺拜的地方。万寿山下昆明湖畔。共有273间、全长728米的长廊将勤政区、生活区、游览区联为一体。长廊西端湖水中的清宴坊，长36米，是一座用石块雕砌成的石船。 昆明湖有220公顷，其中西堤六桥是仿效杭州西湖苏堤六桥设计的。连接东堤和南湖岛的十七孔桥，如长虹卧波，桥栏望柱上雕有各具形态的石狮540个。 在颐和园东北角，有座仿照江南园林而建的园中之园的谐趣园。楼台廊桥，错落相间，花木扶疏，溪水潺潺。进入其间，犹如来到江南。 颐和园于1924年后才作为公园正式对游人开放。 The Summer Palace in Beijing In 1998 November, The Summer Palace in Beijing was honored as "World Cultural and Natural Heritage" by the UN Organization of Science, Education and Culture. The Summer Palace in Beijing is at the top in the list of the ancient park, and one of the most famous parks in the world. It is in the west suburb of Beijing, 10 km from the down town area. The Summer Palace was originally a dwelling place of an emperor built in 1153, and it was renamed as Haoshan Park in Ming dynasty; and was expanded in Qing Qianlong 15 (1750), renamed as Qingyi Park. In 1888, Cixi embezzled the navy funds on the park's reconstruction work and when finished, it was renamed into the Summer Palace. |
|
