Chinese Painting History (in Chinese and English) 绘画简史

艺术始终与人类的生产劳作密不可分，相辅相成。中华大家庭的各族人民在中华大地上繁衍生息，以自己的聪明智慧创造出了石窟艺术、建筑艺术、书法、绘画、雕塑、工艺及民间美术等各种艺术形式。正是这些精美绝伦的艺术瑰宝丰富着世界艺术宝库，它创造了人类艺术历史不朽的奇迹，向世人展示着中国--这个东方大国底蕴深厚的艺术文明以及博大精深的艺术传统。当我们上溯历史，追寻中华艺术神秘而悠远的轨迹，那些距今已五千年之久的彩陶器皿上所描绘的美丽纹饰，无论是水波纹、旋转纹、网纹或锯齿纹等抽象的图案，均或隐或显地折射出当时的社会风貌；而那些具象动物纹、人物纹线条简练，形象生动，显示了远古艺术家对事物质朴的敏感。而比彩陶更为久远的艺术形式则是那些敲凿刻画在断崖峭壁上的岩画。中国岩画分布很广，南部地区有四川省、云南省、贵州省、福建省；北部有阴山、黑河、阿尔泰山等。南部地区岩画普遍用炽热的血红色调表现人们的祭祖及生产生活场面，具有强烈的视觉效果；北部地区岩画多表现狩猎、游牧、战争、舞蹈等题材。帛画是一种在丝布上面创作的绘画作品。出土在湖南省长沙南郊楚墓的帛画《人物龙凤图》是至今所知中国最早的绘画作品；与在另一楚墓发掘的《人物御龙图》并称姐妹篇，专家认为两图大致确立了中国工笔画的基本表现手法，在纸张出现之前，帛画不断发展，到西汉（公元前206--公元220年）时，技法纯熟，达到高峰。

魏晋南北朝（公元420--公元581年）是中国绘画史上一个十分重要的时期。连年的战乱与频繁的朝代更替使当时的学术思想分外活跃，从而促进了艺术的发展。石窟壁画、墓室壁画、石、砖刻及漆画都具有相当规模，并且出现了开宗立派的专业画家，被尊为画祖的顾恺之和他的卷轴画极具这一时期的代表性。被喻为"画圣"的唐代大画家吴道子是一个高产画家，据说他的作品寺廊壁画便有300余堵，有记录的卷轴画100多件，其中以佛教、道教题材为多，另有山水、花鸟、走兽等。吴道子用笔起伏变化，气势雄峻而疏朗，表现出内在的精神力量。

唐朝（公元618-- 公元907年）是人物画的繁盛时期。唐代中期，政权稳定，经济富足，贵族间的享乐风气十分盛行，以至最终发展影响到美术行业。擅长描绘宫廷女性的张萱和周昉是这个画派的代表人物，正是这二位画家将人物画的表现转向现实生活，他们是贵族女性风俗画的先驱，对以后中国仕女画的创作具有重大影响。著名的绢本设色长卷《清明河上图》出于宋代画家张择端之手，这幅描绘北宋都城清明时节景象的作品，既是一件伟大的现实主义绘画艺术珍品，同时，又为后人提供了了解北宋时期大都市中商业、手工业、民俗、建筑、交通工具等情况的形象资料，具有重要的史料文献价值。

唐朝（公元618--公元907年）是人物画的繁盛时期。唐代中期，政权稳定，经济富足，贵族间的享乐风气十分盛行，以至最终发展影响到美术行业。擅长描绘宫廷女性的张萱和周昉是这个画派的代表人物，正是这二位画家将人物画的表现转向现实生活，他们是贵族女性风俗画的先驱，对以后中国仕女画的创作具有重大影响。著名的绢本设色长卷《清明河上图》出于宋代画家张择端之手，这幅描绘北宋都城清明时节景象的作品，既是一件伟大的现实主义绘画艺术珍品，同时，又为后人提供了了解北宋时期大都市中商业、手工业、民俗、建筑、交通工具等情况的形象资料，具有重要的史料文献价值。江南苏州，史称"吴门"，这里人杰地灵，文人荟萃，明朝时许多著名画家在这聚会，形成一个强大画派，人称吴门画派。吴门画派领袖沈周和文徵明、唐寅及仇英，统称"吴门四家"。他们重视继承前代人的笔墨传统，关注作品中的气韵神采，将对风格的追求作为艺术的重要目的。更由于他们本身深厚的文化修养，出发于各自的美学追求，使作品具有一定的创造性。吴门画派的笔墨技巧和表现对意境的营造，对后代具有很大的影响。

清朝初年，作为明朝（公元1368--公元1644年）遗民的朱耷（八大山人）、石涛、髡残和弘仁，先后削发当僧人，被后人称为四大高僧画家。他们利用传统艺术形式，面向自然，面对人生，抒发心胸志向，表达真情实感。同时，他们还重视笔墨情趣，在创作中寻求超然宁馨的感觉，以抚慰历受折磨与煎熬的心灵。著名的"扬州八怪"之所以被人称为"怪"，是因为这些画家作画不守墨矩，他们大都很有个性，孤傲清高，行为狂放，所以，被人称为"八怪"。他们的作品很多取材花鸟，以写意为主要表现方式，作品具有较强的主观色彩，令人耳目一新。尽管当时并不完全被人理解，甚至被认为旁门左道遭到非议。事实上正是他们开创了画坛新局而，为中国花鸟画的发展拓展了前途。清代末年民国早期，上海成为中国最繁荣的商业城市，因而吸引了当时的很多的绘画高手到来，形成了在"扬州八怪"之后中国近代绘画史上最后一个画派--上海画派。画派的代表人物首推任伯年和吴昌硕。任伯年加强中国画写实成份，将工笔与写意结合；中国传统画法与西洋画法结合；文人画与民间绘画结合。他注重观察生活，通过表现某种历史题材，创作出《苏武牧羊》等具有爱国主义思想的作品。吴昌硕从书法篆刻入手，把金石篆刻方法引入花鸟画中，他在花鸟画的运笔、泼墨、著色等方面都有开拓，对后人的画作、画风均产生了较大影响。海派画家是在上个世纪之交涌现出来的一支活跃而富有生气的画派，他们既吸收传统，又接近现实生活，是中国古典绘画向现代绘画过渡的一个重要环节。

民间年画开始在秦汉（公元前221--公元220年）时期，是一种民间艺术形式。每逢过年，家家户户都在卧室、窗子、门上、灶台等处贴上年画，为的是祈求上天赐福消灾灭祸。从宋代开始镂版雕印技术后，木版年画得以发展与广泛流传，至清代发展到高峰。民间年画基本上是农民艺术，很富情节性、装饰性、趣味性，并色彩鲜艳强烈。随着时代的进步，尤其是近20年来，年画日益作为一种通俗而普及的艺术形式被保留下来，并在民间广泛流传。它以反映现实生活为主要题材，因而很受人们吉闻乐见。年画彩用新的印制技术后，发行量极大，是至今为止数量最多的出版物之一，也是世界上读者最多的画种。中国"五四"新文化运动使得许多画界学子学习和引进西方艺术，涌现出徐悲鸿、林凤眠等一批融合中西绘画的伟大画家。徐悲鸿吸收西方艺术中重视人体解剖、造型精确的特点，用以对中国画人物形象的刻画。他将西方绘画中的古典主义、浪漫主义、印象主义等流派艺术的精髓及要义与中国画有机地融合起来。在《画苑序》中，他总结的"新七法"，既是自己艺术实践的总结，也是对现实主义美术理论研究的成果。徐悲鸿对中国美术教育做出了开创性的贡献。林风眠虽然也是融合中西画法的艺术大师，然而，他笔下的中国画和传统中国画有很大距离，表现形式很大程度属"西方化"。但林风眠作品在总体上传达了浓重的中国画韵味，空灵、含蓄、蕴籍而富有诗意。齐白石是继海派画家之后将传统中国画推上一个新高峰的绘画大师。他对诗文、书画、篆刻都有很深的造诣。他成功地将民间艺术情趣融入文人画中，不仅扩展了文人画的表现题材，同时更新了文人画的艺术境界，开创了具有时代精神和生活气息的写意花鸟画的新篇章。他的作品洋溢着健康、快乐、恢谐、倔强、自足和蓬勃的生命力。黄宾虹是中国近百年来山水画的代表，艺术特征可用"浑厚华兹"来概括。黄宾虹作品"黑蒙蒙"的特点是因为他在晚年发现了夜山的"雄奇、黑密、沉静"，这也是一种境界与美学价值的发现。

20世纪中叶，山水画家纷纷崛起。江西省的钱岩松、傅抱石、魏紫熙；广西省的黎雄才、关山月；上海市的贺天健；西安市的赵望云、石鲁；浙江省的陆俨少等活跃于画坛；另外，晚年定居在中国台湾的张大千在山水画方面也很有水平。在这其中，最具有代表性的是李可染。李可染将西方绘画中表现光影的方法成功地融入到山水画的创作之中，但仍不失传统中国画特征。2O世纪兴起的现代中国人物画，广泛吸收西方美术技巧，表现新的时代生活，在50年代成就就很突出。黄胄是其中很有创新精神的杰出的人物画家，黄胄既重视中国绘画的优良传统，又力求造型的准确。他的作品具有强烈的生活气息，笔下的景象，使人有身临其境的感觉。油画是明代、清代之交从西方传入中国的画种。到20世纪初，李叔同、李铁夫、陈抱一、徐悲鸿、林风眠、刘海粟等画坛学子纷纷出国学习，并将欧洲油画技法引入中国。当时活跃于在油画坛上的还有颜文梁、常书鸿、吕斯百和潘玉良等。20世纪50年代以后，油画进入以历史题材为主的创作时期，其中，董希文创作的《开国大典》最突出。2O世纪80年代，中国进入改革开放新时期，油画同中国美术的创作一样，发生了重大转变。其中以《父亲》、《西藏组画》等一批具有现实主义特色的油画影响最大。80年代中后期的油画作品出现了新的艺术形式和风俗，新尚谊的《瞿秋白》、《歌唱家肖扬》；杨飞云的《北方姑娘》；何大桥的《静物》等在肖像和风景油画上显示了古典主义风格和写实油画细腻、深入的特点。这期间还有刘德润、李燕的《沂蒙娃》；王玉琦的《腊月》；高天雄的《老乡》和费正的《包饺子》等写实手法描绘乡土风情的作品。有姚仲华的《啊，土地》；官其格的《高原红色》等表现主义的作品；有苏笔柏的《大娘家》；周思聪的《正午》等简括写意手法的作品；有王怀庆的《伯乐》；刘秉江的《塔吉克新娘》等很具装饰艺术色彩的作品。另外，闻立鹏的《红烛颂》具有象征意义；韦启美的《讲座》具有构成主义倾向；高立达的《加利福尼亚高速公路》具有抽象主义成份。

总之，到80年代末期，中国油画出现了空前的多样化的局面。《只树孤独图》是世界公认最早的木刻版画，它出现在唐代懿宗年间（公元868年）。中国最早的木刻版画是作为书籍的插图，20世纪30年代初，在鲁迅的倡导和支持下，新兴版画开始蓬勃发展。版画创作者不仅以中国传统的木刻为基础，并受到西方创作版画的影响，以现实主义的创作方法和比较写实的手法表现生活，出现了一大批充溢着旺盛活力和鲜明时代精神的作品。进入80年代后，版画创作的艺术风格更加多样化，品种、体裁、样式也急剧增加，版画创作呈现出全新的局面。蓬勃发展于20世纪5O年代的中国现代民间绘画，具有非常丰富的想象力，创作者不受专业画法的约束，甚至不受真实现象和常规理制约，特色鲜明，在中国当代美术史上占有着一席之地。

Chinese Painting

Chinese traditional painting dates back to the Neolithic Age about 6,000 years ago. The excavated colored pottery with painted human faces, fish, deer and frogs indicates that the Chinese began painting as far back as the Neolithic Age. Over the centuries, the growth of Chinese painting inevitably reflected the change of time and social conditions. From Primitive to Modern

A painted pottery basin

In its earliest stage, Chinese prehistoric paintings were closely related to other primitive crafts, such as pottery, bronzeware, carved jade and lacquer. The line patterns on unearthed pottery and bronzeware resemble ripples, fishing nets, teeth or frogs. The animal and human figures, succinct and vivid, are proofs to the innate sensitivity of the ancient artists and nature.

A rock painting

Paintings or engravings found on precipitous cliffs in Sichuan, Yunnan and Guizhou in Southwest China; Fujian in East China and Mount Yinshan in Inner Mongolia; Altai in China's extreme west and Heihe in the far north, are even more ancient. Strong visual effects characterize the bright red cliff paintings in southern China that depict scenes of sacrificial rites, production activities and daily life. In comparison, hunting, animal grazing, wars and dancing are the main themes of cliff paintings in northern China.Before paper was invented, the art of silk painting had been developing. The earliest silk painting was excavated from the Mawangdui Tomb in central China of the Warring States Period (476-221 BC). Silk painting reached its artistic peak in the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD25).Following the introduction of Buddhism to China during the first century from India, and the carvings on grottoes and temple building that ensued, the art of painting religious murals gradually gained prominence.

Grotto mural in Dunhuang

China plunged into a situation of divided states from the third to the sixth century, where incessant wars and successions of dynasties sharpened the thinking of Chinese artists which, in turn, promoted the development of art. Grotto murals, wall murals in tomb chambers, stone carvings, brick carvings and lacquer paintings flourished in a period deemed very important to the development of traditional Chinese painting The Tang Dynasty (618-907) witnessed the prosperity of figure painting, where the most outstanding painters were Zhang Xuan and Zhou Fang. Their paintings, depicting the life of noble women and court ladies, exerted an eternal influence on the development of shi nu hua (painting of beauties), which comprise an important branch of traditional Chinese painting today.

Painting of beauties

Beginning in the Five Dynasties (907-960), each dynasty set up an art academy that gathered together the best painters throughout China. Academy members, who were on the government payroll and wore official uniforms, drew portraits of emperors, nobles and aristocrats that depicted their daily lives. The system proved conducive to the development of painting. The succeeding Song Dynasty (960-1127) developed such academies into the Imperial Art Academy.

Landscape painting

During the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) the "Four Great Painters" -- Huang Gongwang, Ni Zan, Wei Zhen and Wang Meng -- represented the highest level of landscape painting. Their works immensely influenced landscape painting of the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties.The Ming Dynasty saw the rise of the Wumen Painting School, which emerged in Suzhou on the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Keen to carry on the traditions of Chinese painting, the four Wumen masters blazed new trails and developed their own unique styles.When the Manchus came to power in 1644, the then-best painters showed their resentment to the Qing (1644-1911) court in many ways. The "Four Monk Masters" -- Zhu Da, Shi Tao, Kun Can and Hong Ren -- had their heads shaved to demonstrate their determination not to serve the new dynasty, and they soothed their sadness by painting tranquil nature scenes and traditional art. Yangzhou, which faces Suzhou across the Yangtze River, was home to the "Eight Eccentrics" - the eight painters all with strong characters, proud and aloof, who refused to follow orthodoxy. They used freehand brushwork and broadened the horizon of flower-and-bird painting. By the end of the Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, Shanghai, which gave birth to the Shanghai Painting School, had become the most prosperous commercial city and a gathering place for numerous painters. Following the spirit of the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou, the Shanghai School played a vital role in the transition of Chinese traditional painting from a classical art form to a modern one. The May 4th Movement of 1919, or the New Culture Movement, inspired the Chinese to learn from western art and introduce it to China. Many outstanding painters, led by Xu Beihong, emerged, whose paintings recognized a perfect merging of the merits of both Chinese and Western styles, absorbing western classicism, romanticism and impressionism. Other great painters of this period include Qi Baishi, Huang Binhong and Zhang Daqian. Oil painting, a western art, was introduced to China in the 17th century and gained popularity in the early 20th century. In the 1980s Chinese oil painting boomed.

New Year Painting

Then came popular folk painting -- Chinese New Year pictures pinned up on doors, room walls and windows on the Chinese New Year to invite heavenly blessings and ward off disasters and evil spirits - which dates back to the Qin and Han dynasties. Thanks to the invention of block printing, folk painting became popular in the Song Dynasty and reached its zenith of sophistication in the Qing. Woodcuts have become increasingly diverse in style, variety, theme and artistic form since the early 1980s. Classification of Chinese Traditional Painting

Four treasures of the study

Traditional Chinese painting has its special materials and tools, consisting of brushes, ink and pigments, xuan paper, silk and various kinds of ink slabs. Based on different classification standards, Chinese traditional painting can be divided into several groups, as follows:

1. Techniques

According to painting techniques, Chinese painting can be divided into two styles: xieyi style and gongbi style. Xieyi, or freehand, is marked by exaggerated forms and freehand brushwork. Gongbi, or meticulous, is characterized by close attention to detail and fine brushwork. Freehand painting generalizes shapes and displays rich brushwork and ink techniques.

2. Forms

The principal forms of traditional Chinese painting are the hanging scroll, album of paintings, fan surface and long horizontal scroll. Hanging scrolls are both horizontal and vertical, usually mounted and hung on the wall. In an album of paintings the artist paints on a certain size of xuan paper and then binds a number of paintings into an album, which is convenient for storage. Folding fans and round fans made of bamboo strips with painted paper or silk pasted on the frame. The long, horizontal scroll is also called a hand scroll and is usually less than 50 centimeters high but maybe up to 100 meters long.

3. Subjects

Traditional Chinese paintings can be classified as figure paintings, landscapes and flower-and-bird paintings. Landscapes represent a major category in traditional Chinese painting, mainly depicting the natural scenery of mountains and rivers. The range of subject matter in figure painting was extended far beyond religious themes during the Song Dynasty (960-1127). Landscape painting had already established itself as an independent form of expression by the fourth century and gradually branched out into the two separate styles: blue-and-green landscapes using bright blue, green and red pigments; and ink-and-wash landscapes relied on vivid brushwork and inks. Flower-and-bird painting deviated from decorative art to form its own independent genre around the ninth century. Traditional Chinese painting, poetry, calligraphy, painting and seal engraving are necessary components that supplement and enrich one another. "Painting in poetry and poetry in painting" has been a criterion for excellent works. Inscriptions and seal impressions help explain the painter's ideas and sentiments and also add beauty to the painting.

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京剧脸谱

京剧脸谱

脸谱是京剧的一种表演手段，脸谱历史很悠久。

脸谱来源于生活：生活上常常形容人的脸色的变化，比如说：吓得煞白，臊得通红，晒得漆黑，生病的人形容脸色蜡黄等等。脸谱就是把这种夸张的说法，再用夸张的手法画在脸上。用来描写人物的正直、刚烈。常常画红脸，比如关羽。奸险狡诈之人如曹操，常画白脸，而铁面无私的包公形象则用黑脸来代表，等等。各种人物的脸谱有一定的规矩，这些在京剧中把脸上勾勒出形象，称之为脸谱。脸谱是京剧的一种表演手段，脸谱历史很悠久。

Facial Design

Chinese opera performers mainly have two methods of makeup: masks and facial painting. The frequent on-stage change of masks, without the audience noticing, is a special technique, known as changing faces. Opera facial painting falls into four main categories -- personality makeup (facial designs, painted faces or Lian Pu), decorative makeup (decorated faces), mood makeup (changing facial designs), and pictographic makeup (animal-like facial designs).

Lian Pu

Personality makeup, or Lian Pu, refers to facial designs for Jing and Chou roles. It originated from daily life experience, describing such changes of expression as white for fear, red for shyness, dark for suntan, and sallow for illness. Most facial designs attach great importance to the eyes and eyebrows. Lian Pu has formed a complete

system, such as the facial designs of Peking Opera.

Red, yellow, white, black, purple, green and silver are the main colors used for facial designs to represent different characters. For instance, red stands for loyal, courageous and upright people; white for sinister and cunning officials; and golden and silvery colors for gods and ghosts.

The facial designs for the Jing roles are made by painting, powdering and coloring in the basic forms of Zheng Lian (keeping the basic face pattern), San Kuai Wa Lian (three-section face) and Sui Lian (fragmentary face). These types are widely used to represent generals, officials, heroes, gods and ghosts.

The Chou actors can be recognized by the patch of white in various shapes (cube-, date pit-or bat-shaped) painted around the eyes and nose. Sometimes these patches are outlined in black, hence the term Xiao Hua Lian (partly painted face). The Chou roles fall into the following two categories: Wen Chou (civil) and Wu Chou (martial).

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京剧概述

京剧本来是一种地方性的戏剧表演形式，由于它传遍中国大江南北，深受群众欢迎与喜爱，所以就慢慢演变成了代表中国艺术特色的全国性戏剧。

大约在200多年前，清朝的乾隆皇帝在南巡时，对地方上的戏剧产生了浓厚的兴趣。于是，在他80岁生日的时候，下旨传召了很多地方上的戏剧表演团来京为他祝寿。部分戏剧表演者在表演结束后，就留存了北京。这些来自安徽与湖北的表演家将昆曲与宫庭戏剧相结合，逐步演变和发展成了后来响誉中国的“京剧”。

京剧表演融合了唱、念、作、打等多种艺术表现形式，辅以五彩缤纷的服装道具以及化妆。在京剧

中，女性的角色被称做“旦”，男性的角色被称做“生”，小丑被称做“丑”每个角色都会依照他们的性别、年龄及个性，在脸上画不同的脸谱，这样，观众可以很容易地分清这些演员所扮员的角色是什么样的性格。化妆、服饰、行头—这些都是令人称奇的艺术品。

在过去，京剧中的角色只能由男性扮演，而现在，无论是男人还是女人，都可以登台演出了。当你来到中国的时候，一定要去看一场京剧，就像是你到了意大利一定要去听一场歌剧一样。当然，中国还有很多其它的戏剧，比如说“昆曲”、“评剧”、“河北邦子”等等。

Peking Opera

Originally a form of local theatre, Peking Opera spread all over the country and then became the national opera of China. About 200 years ago, the Qing Emperor Qianlong toured in southern China and developed an interest in the local operas. On his 80th birthday, he let local opera troupes come to Beijing to perform for him. Some remained in Beijing after the celebration. The ones from Anhui and Hubei were incorporated with the palace opera -Kunqu Opera, which formed the Peking Opera .Peking Opera combines stylized acting with singing, dancing, musical dialogues, martial arts, colorful facial make-up and fantastic costumes.

Male roles are “Sheng”, and clowns are “Chou”. Each role, according to their sex, age and disposition, is characterized by different designs of facial make-up, say, Jing representing a rough, frank character and Hua Face representing a cruel or sinister character. So the audience can easily tell what kind of character an actor is performing.Facial make-up, costumes and head - dresses are wonderful works of traditional art.

In the past, both Dan and Sheng roles were played by male actors, but now they also can be played by female. It is necessary to see Peking Opera while you are in China, just as seeing an opera while in Italy. There are also some other types of opera staged in China, such as Kunqu Opera, Pingju Opera and Hebei Bangzi as well as other operas from different places.

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京剧历史

清朝乾隆五十五年(公元1790年)，来自中国南方的四大徽班陆续进入北京。第一个进京的徽班是以唱“二黄”声腔为主的“三庆”，由于其声腔及剧目都很丰富，逐渐压倒了当时盛行于北京的秦腔。许多秦腔班演员转入徽班，形成徽秦两腔的融合。随后，另外三个徽班：“四喜”、“春台”和“和春”也来到北京，使盛行多年的昆剧逐渐衰落，昆剧演员也多转入徽班。到了清朝道光年间湖北演员进京，带来了楚调(汉调、西皮调)，在京师与徽班造成了西皮与二黄合流，形成所谓的“皮黄戏”。此时在京师里形成的皮黄戏，受到北京语音与腔调的影响，有了“京音”的特色。后来由于他们经常到上海演出，上海人就把这种带有北京特点的皮黄戏叫做“京戏”，也叫“京剧”。又由于京剧在京师的迅速发展，使其艺术水平在中国戏曲中名列前茅，后来在全中国流行，所以也被称为“国剧”。

History of Peking Opera

With its fascinating and artistic accompanying music, singing and costumes, the Peking Opera is China's national opera. Full of Chinese cultural facts, the opera presents the audience with an encyclopedia of Chinese culture, as well as unfolding stories, beautiful paintings, exquisite costumes, graceul gestures and martial arts. Since Peking Opera enjoys a higher reputation than other local operas, almost every province in China has more than one Peking Opera troupe. Opera is so popular among Chinese people, especially seniors, that even "Peking Opera Month" has been declared.

Peking Opera has a 200-year-long history. Its main melodies originated from Xipi and Erhuang in Anhui and Hubei respectively and, over time, techniques from many other local operas were incorporated into Peking Opera.

It is believed that Peking Opera gradually came into being after 1790 when the famous four Anhui opera troupes came to Beijing. Peking Opera underwent fast development during the reign of Emperor Qianlong and the notorious Empress Dowager Cixi under the imperial patron, eventually becoming more accessible to the common people.

In ancient times, Peking Opera was performed mostly on stage in the open air, teahouses or temple courtyards. Since the orchestra played loudly, the performers developed a piercing style of song that could be heard by everyone. The costumes were a garish collection of sharply contrasting colors to stand out on the dim stage illuminated only by oil lamps. Peking Opera is a harmonious combination of the Grand Opera, ballet and acrobatics, consisting of dance, dialogue, monologues, martial arts and mime.

The Peking Opera band mainly consists of an orchestra and percussion band. The former frequently accompanies peaceful scenes while the latter provides the right atmosphere for battle scenes. The commonly used percussion instruments include castanets, drums, bells and cymbals. One person usually plays the castanets and drum simultaneously, which conduct the entire band. The orchestral instruments include the Erhu, Huqin, Yueqin, Sheng (reed pipe), Pipa (lute) and other instruments. The band usually sits on the left side of the stage.

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京剧行当

京剧在塑造人物方面有其独特的造型语言。它把不同性别、性格、年龄、身份的人物划分为不同的行当，一般说来有"生、旦、净、丑"四大行当。由于京剧人物造型形象鲜明、风格多样，有强烈的剧场效果，常常更易于激起观众的欣赏兴趣。

生行

京剧中的 "生"，一般指剧中扮演男子的演员，其中又可细分为"老生"、"小生"和"武生"。"老生"，顾名思义就是中老年男子角色，在剧中多扮演正直刚毅的人物形象，例如京剧《伍子胥》中的伍子胥.他们演出时要戴挂在耳朵上的假胡须，在京剧的行话中也叫"髯口"，因此还专门有一套髯口上的表演功夫。胡须的颜色表示了人物的年龄。京剧《四郎探母》中的杨四郎年约三十岁，所戴胡须为黑色。京剧《秦香莲》中王延龄年约六十，所戴胡须为白色。老生在剧中一般注重演唱和细腻表演，唱腔上也最为丰富。台词用京剧中的韵白来表现，演唱用真声，风格刚劲、挺拔、质朴、醇厚，动作造型也以雍容、端方、庄重为基调。与老生相对应的是 "小生"，在京剧中指青少

年男子角色，他们在剧中的动作造型儒雅倜傥、秀逸飞动。在演唱上采用真假声结合的唱法，演唱风格华美和明亮。例如京剧《白蛇传》中的许仙.

"武生"是指扮演剧中年轻的男性武将，他们用高超的武打技术来展示剧中人物的武艺高强。不重演唱，注重武打动作的娴熟和技巧的难度。例如京剧《长坂坡》中的赵云.

Role of Sheng

The roles on the Chinese opera stage fall into four categories -- Sheng, Dan, Jing and Chou. These roles have the natural features of age and sex, as well as social status, and are artificially exaggerated by makeup, costume and gestures.

Sheng, a male role, usually a leading one, dates back to Southern Drama of the Song and Yuan Dynasties (960-1368). This role appears in operas in all historical periods. According to the age and social status of the characters, Sheng falls into five sub-groups: Laosheng, Xiaosheng, Wusheng, Hongsheng and Wawasheng (characters of children).

Laosheng is also known as Xusheng, meaning bearded men, because the actors wear artificial beards, and they are middle-aged or elderly men. Most are upright and resolute characters. They sing in their natural voices, and their actions are serious ones.

Xiaosheng is a sub-category of Sheng representing young male characters. They don't wear artificial beards. They always sing in their real voices, while in Kunqu and Pihuang operas the singing mixes natural and falsetto voices.

Wusheng stands for all of the male characters who appear in battle scenes. They are further subdivided into Changkao Wuheng, Duanda Wusheng, Goulian Wusheng and Houxi Wusheng. They always wear helmets and thick-soled boots. The generals always carry long pikes. Wusheng roles call for sturdy and vigorous actions, with resounding declamations. The movements of the waist and legs are powerful, and a high level of martial arts skills is demanded in these roles. Duanda Wusheng roles use short-handled weapons, and their movements are light and swift.

旦行

京剧中把女性统称为"旦"，其中按照人物的年龄、性格又可细分为许多行当，饰演大家闺秀和有身份的妇女称为"正旦"，正旦在京剧中俗称"青衣"，这就是因为正旦所扮演的角色常穿青色的长衫而得名。京剧《窦娥冤》中的女主角窦娥就是典型的青衣角色。青衣的表演庄重娴静，秀雅柔婉，以唱功为主，一般说来，青衣的唱腔旋律优美，细腻婉转。旦行中的"花旦"，多扮演天真活泼或放荡泼辣的青衣妇女，在表演上注重做工和念白，例如《红娘》中的红娘. "武旦"和"刀马旦"相当于生行中的武生，扮演的是擅长武艺的青壮年妇女，装扮和武生差不多，也扎靠服，她们多在剧中扮演

女侠、女将甚至女仙、女妖等。武旦和刀马旦的表演往往还伴随着热闹的锣鼓点，烘托场上的气氛。

"老旦"，指在剧中扮演老年妇女的角色行当。为突出老年人的特点，走路迈一种沉稳的横八字步，服装色调为色彩偏暗的秋香色、墨绿色，演唱用真声表现。

Role of Dan in Peking Opera

The roles on the Chinese opera stage fall into four categories: Sheng, Dan, Jing and Chou. These roles have the natural features of age and sex, as well as social status, and are artificially exaggerated by makeup, costume and gestures.

Dan is the general term in Peking Opera for female roles. As early as in the Song Dynasty (960-1279), the Zhuangdan role appeared. Southern Drama and Northern Zaju, which developed during the Song and Yuan Dynasties (960-1368), also had Dan roles. After Kunqu matured, it had Zhengdan, Xiaodan, Tidan and Laodan. Later, more Dan types were developed. Nowadays, the Dan roles are subdivided into Zhengdan (or Qingyi), Huadan, Wudan, Laodan and Caidan, in accordance with age, characteristics and social positions of the roles.

Zhengdan role was the main Dan role in the Northern Zaju. Zhengdan refers to young or middle-aged women with gentle and refined dispositions. Most of Zhengdan 's lines are delivered in song, and even the spoken parts are recited in rhythmic style. Always dressed in a blue gown, Zhengdan is also called Qingyi (blue clothes).

Huadan is a role for a vivacious maiden, a young woman with a frank and open personality, or a woman of questionable character.

Wudan refers to female characters skilled in the martial arts and can be subdivided into Daomadan and Wudan, according to the social positions and skills represented. Daomadan is good at using pikes and spears, and at riding horses. Wudan always wears short robes and the role emphasizes acrobatics. Wudan plays gods and ghosts and has excellent fighting skills.

Laodan usually represents aged women. He/She sings in their natural voices, in a style similar to that of Laosheng but in milder tones. In some types of opera, Laodan is called Fudan or Bodan.

Caidan, also called Choudan, represents clownish and cunning females. The performance of this part calls for exuberance.

净行

在京剧中，"净"角是舞台上具有独特风格的人物类型，脸部化妆最为丰富彩。"净"因面部化妆要用各种色彩和图案勾勒脸谱，所以又俗称"大花脸"。一般扮演品貌或者性格有特点的男子，在京剧中多为将军、神化人物或有一定社会地位的人，虽有文武善恶之分，但在性格气质上都近乎粗犷、奇伟、豪迈，因而在演唱上要求用真声演唱，音色宽阔洪亮、粗壮浑厚，动作造型也要求粗线条，气度恢宏，以突出扮演人物的性格和声势。

Role of Jing

The roles on the Chinese opera stage fall into four categories: Sheng, Dan, Jing and Chou. These roles have the natural features of age and sex, as well as social status, and are artificially exaggerated by makeup, costume and gestures.

Jing refers to painted-face roles, known popularly as Hualian. The different colors and designs on the faces represent males with different characteristics. Some are bold and vigorous and some are sinister, ruthless, crude and rash. The voice is loud and clear, and the movements are exaggerated.

The Jing role originates from the Fujing role of the Song Zaju. The Jing roles gradually increased in number, and became further divided into several groups, according to the different social positions and characters of the roles.

Dahualian with a fully painted face is known as Zheng Jing. The roles represent men of high social standing and good behavior, often court ministers. Zheng Jing sings in vigorous and sturdy tones.

Erhualian, also known as Fu Jing, has powerful bodily movements and sturdy singing voices. Some roles in this group represent rascally ministers, recognizable by their white faces.

Wu'er Hualian is also known as Wu Jing. This role is more physical than most of the others, with little singing or reciting.

You Hualian, also known as Mao Jing, is a clownish role. Some of You Hualian roles have special skills, such as spouting fire from the mouth or baring the teeth.

丑行

京剧中的"丑"角演员又称为"小花脸"。"丑"行的化妆虽与大花脸有点相象，可是他的表演风格却完全不同，有点像夸张的漫画。丑角的出场常会带来满堂的笑声。

"丑"分"文丑"和"武丑"两类。武丑扮演的经常是一些机警风趣、武艺高超的人物，象绿林好汉、侠盗小偷等等。"文丑"经常扮演花花公子、狱卒、酒保、更夫、老兵等。不管文丑或武丑，虽有文武善恶、身份高低之分，在剧中都是幽默、滑稽的喜剧人物，也并不都是反派。

京剧的行当是经过长期的提炼和规范，突出人物的内在特征，把人物的内在特征加以外化而形成的，是京剧与其他戏剧形式不同的重要特征。

Role of Chou in Peking Opera

The roles on the Chinese opera stage fall into four categories: Sheng Dan, Jing and Chou. These roles have the natural features of age and sex, as well as social status, and are artificially exaggerated by makeup, costume and gestures.

The Chou is one of the main roles in Peking Opera. The eyes and nose are surrounded by a white patch, so Chou is also known as Xiao Hua Lian (partly painted face).

The Chou roles originated in Southern Drama of the Song and Yuan dynasties (960-1368) and appear in various kinds of operas. They portray various kinds of characters, some are warm-hearted, simple and sincere, and some are sinister and mean.

In modern operas, the performance of Chou roles has developed rapidly, and different operas have their own styles. In general, the Chou roles do not focus on singing, but the dialogue is clear and fluent. According to the social positions, characters and skills demanded, the Chou roles are divided into two categories: Wenchou (civilian) and Wuchou (martial). Both have their own special features.

Wuchou is also known as Kai Kou Tiao. It requires not only a good command of the martial arts or acrobatics, but also the ability to deliver the lines both clearly and fluently. The movements should be light and powerful.

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京剧服装

传统的京剧服装不受时代、地域的限制，只要是表现封建社会内容的戏，不管是表现什么朝代，什么地域都可以用。其概括的能力非常之大，使用的范围也非常之广，它只受角色的身份、行当的制约。另外，京剧的服装还不受季节的影响。一般的情况下，不分纱、丝绸、棉、皮、夹的、单的等等。除非剧情有特定的要求，一定要表明季节，才根据剧情略略的加一些装饰性的点缀。（比如：下雪时，仅仅加一个斗篷就足以表明是雪天了）。

京剧服装还不受生活逻辑的制约。比如有：水袖、靠背旗、雉尾等等，都是为了表现角色的表演而佩带的。

京剧的服装分得非常细致的。比如：“蟒”。这种服装就是帝王将相有爵位的人在朝贺、宴会等非常庄重严肃的场合才穿的礼服。

虽然都称为“蟒”，但是，根据剧情中人物的身份和地位的不同，是大有区别的。比如：皇帝穿的“蟒”，衣服上绣的叫“龙”这个龙有五爪。而且龙是张着嘴，嘴里吐出火珠。

而亲王、大臣、将帅的“蟒”上绣的也是“龙”的形状，但是不叫“龙”，叫“蟒”。“蟒”只有四个爪，“蟒”的嘴是闭着的，象征着群臣折服。

文官的衣服上绣的龙是“团龙”，很文静。武官衣服上绣的龙多是“散龙”，呈腾越的姿势，象征着威武、果敢。“蟒”的颜色有很多的区别：分别有上五色和下五色之分。上五色有：黄、红、绿、白、黑。下五色有：蓝、古铜、紫、粉、秋香色。

什么人物穿什么颜色的衣服，这在京剧里面是非常讲究的。拿“黄色”来说，就有两种“黄色”：正黄色（浅黄），这种黄色只有皇帝才能穿。而太后、太子、亲王虽然也穿黄色，但是必须是深黄色（杏黄色）。

红色的“蟒”表示很庄严高贵，是地位比较高的王侯、宰相、驸马、钦差、元帅才能穿用。绿色的“蟒”表示威严英武，是地位很高的武官的穿戴。另外，还包括一些“绿林好汉”“草莽英雄”。而穿白色“蟒”袍的大多是少年英俊、潇洒的人物。

黑色“蟒”袍的穿戴者多是刚直不阿、性情威猛、豪爽的人物。

以上是“上五色”。“下五色”相对面就宽了一些。

男士在穿蟒时，必须围玉带。

注：白蟒还有一种特殊的用途那就是给"草寇"用的。区别是：一般的达观贵人穿蟒必须穿到脚面。而草寇穿的蟒只穿到膝盖，用以表示他们并不是正统的帝王将相，但是看似庄重，反而给人一种浅薄可笑的意义在里面。

女蟒：女蟒的颜色比较少，只有黄、红、白等颜色。黄色自然是给皇后专用，其他女官均穿红色的蟒袍。白色的蟒袍是孝服。

老旦蟒：蟒袍仅过膝盖，但是必须佩带凤冠、腰挂玉带。太后穿的是杏黄色蟒袍、其他如：一品诰命夫人、贵夫人、太夫人则穿秋香色的蟒袍，头上要戴老旦冠，腰间系丝绦以和皇太后区别。

简蟒：简蟒的式样与蟒相同，只是刺绣的图案少一些。这是为了减轻重量，利于表演。简蟒虽然简单一些，但是地位并不低下，头戴相纱以示地位的尊贵和职务的显赫。

还有一种是太监们专用的蟒袍，样式和其他蟒袍一样，只是下身开隙，是随驾太监一类人的穿着。

Characteristics of Peking Opera Costumes

Peking Opera was born in the 55th year (1790) of the reign of Emperor Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), when four big Huiban opera troupes entered Beijing and began to adopt elements of the Kunqu, Yiyang, Hanju and Luantan opera forms already popular in capital's playdom at the time. More than half a century later, the troupes combined and integrated stories and methods from the various popular opera styles they encountered, eventually resulting in form of Peking Opera.

Xingtou

Peking Opera costumes are called Xingtou or, more popularly, Xifu in Chinese. The origins of Peking Opera costumes can be traced back to the mid-14th century, when operatic precursors first began experimenting with large ornate articles of clothing.

Rules of Costume Tradition

(1) Anachronisms are allowable. A performer's costume primarily designates his or her role on the stage no matter when or where the action takes place. Characters, whether they are from ancient times or in pre-modern China, appear on the Chinese opera stage wearing costumes suitable to their roles.

(2) Regardless of which season is being depicted in performance, the opera costume is the same. Weather is described in every scene and must be made clear by the actor's movements, rather than his clothing.

(3) Peking Opera costumes must enable the audience to distinguish a character's sex and status at first glance. In terms of symbolism, Peking Opera costumes have its social hierarchy -- noble or humble, civilian or military, official or private citizens.

(4) By means of a subtle difference, opera costumes often give expression to sharp distinctions between good and evil or, preferably, loyal and wicked characters. Oblong Wings (chizi) attached to a gauze hat indicate a loyal official. In contrast, a corrupt official is made to wear a gauze hat with rhomboidal wings.

(5) Baldrics, though apparently of little or no account as compared with such principal items as crowns and robes, may nevertheless function to bring about more dramatic effects on the stage. For instance, the wings attached to a hat, the plumes (lingzi) pinned to a helmet and the cascading sleeves (shuixiu) sewn to a garment accentuate movement even if they have little practical use.

In the early days, opera costumes were mainly made of wool or coarse cloth; later, satin, crepe and silk were used, decorated with various meticulously embroidered patterns. The making of opera costumes is a special and unique stagecraft. The costume box first appeared in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), and was greatly improved in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).

Lavish Costumes

(1) Headdress: Designated by the general term Toukui, opera headdress comprises such items as crown, helmet, hat and scarf. Crowns are for the emperor and nobles; military people wear marshals, helmets; ordinary folks wear soft scarves or straw hats. Some headgear, such as crowns, is rigid, while others are soft.

(2) Costume: There are 20 major kinds of costumes, including the ceremonial robe, or Mang; the informal robe, or Pei; and the armor, or Kao, for soldiers. Ten colors are used, half of which are the five primary colors (or shang wu se), namely, red, green, yellow, white and black, in contrast to the other group of pink, blue, purple, pale-brown and pale-blue, all of which are labeled secondary colors (xia wu se).

Many details should be paid attention to, for example, Mang is the general costume for the emperor and nobles, but there are differences between these costumes. There is a dragon, opening its mouth on the Mang for the emperor, while the dragon on the Mang for the ministers and generals having its mouth closed. The dragons on the costume of the civil officials are gentle and quiet, while the ones on the costume of the martial officials are bold and mighty. There are clear distinctions between the use of colors, for example, the red Mang stands for majestic and noble, the green Mang indicates mighty and bold, the white one fits the handsome young people, and the black one is for the upright and unconstrained people. Besides, there are simplified Mang and Mang specifically made for the female actress, the Laodan, and the palace eunuch.

(3) Opera shoes: A wide variety of shoes and boots are used in opera performance, mainly platform boots (hou di xue), tiger-headed boots (hu tou xue), thin-soled combat footwear made of black satin (kuai xue), fish-head pugilist's shoes, laced boxer's shoes, etc.

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中国书画

中国汉字是从图画、符号逐渐演变形成的，汉字的书写和发展过程导致了书法艺术的产生。中国历代都有大书法家，其书法艺术和风格成为所在朝代书法的典型代表。人们对书法的喜爱一直流传到今天。

不同于西方的油画，中国的传统绘画有独特的表现形式。距今六七千年前新石器时代绘于陶器上的图画，是中国最早的绘画作品。由于最早的绘画和写字均使用同样的工具，并且都是以线条为主，故有“书画同源”之说。中国传统绘画作品一般都有题诗或题字，诗、书、画因而汇合成一个艺术整体，予人以更加丰厚的美学内涵。人物画、山水画和花鸟画均为传统绘画的重要画种，历代留下的此类绘画尤见传神。

当代中国的书法与绘画相当活跃。中国美术馆等艺术馆长年不断举办个人画展或联展；中国画每年都走出国门，到日本、韩国、美国、加拿大和欧洲等地展览。除中国画外，油画、版画、水彩画等西洋绘画在中国也得到发展。部分画家将国画与西画技法糅合一起进行创作，使画坛呈现出风格多样的艺术作品。以各种现代材料、格式、框架和手法为载体的现代艺术也占有一席之地，包括视频、数码、动画和声音艺术在内的新媒体艺术作品，已经在国内外的当代艺术展览中频频露面。

与艺术品拍卖行业的发展同步，画廊业近年来逐渐与国际惯例接轨。每年分别在北京、上海和广州各举办一次的艺术博览会，成为艺术品交易的另一种途径，其中上海艺术博览会为亚洲参展艺术品门类最齐全的艺术博览会。

Calligraphy and Painting

Chinese characters evolved from pictures and signs, and the Chinese art of calligraphy developed naturally from its unique writing system. Through the ages, great calligraphers developed representative calligraphic styles of their times. The love of calligraphy is deeply ingrained in Chinese scholars, and has been handed down to the present day.

The roots of Chinese painting can be traced back to paintings on Neolithic pottery six or seven thousand years ago. Since similar tools and lines were used for the earliest painting and writing, painting is said to have the same origin as calligraphy. Thus, Chinese paintings usually integrate poetry or calligraphy with themes that include figures, landscapes, flowers, birds and other animals. Traditional Chinese painting remains a highly valued genre, often on exhibit in China as well as other countries. The contemporary art world in China is also very active. Some Chinese artists have become adept at Western-style painting, both oil and watercolor. Many Chinese painters have created works that combine traditional Chinese painting techniques with those of the West, enhancing both forms. The China Art Gallery and other art galleries hold individual or joint art exhibitions year in year out. Art expositions are held each year in Beijing, Guangzhou and Shanghai.

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钟繇

钟繇(151－230 A.D)., 字元常，三国魏颍川(今河南许昌)人。颖川长社（今河南长葛）人。或作许昌人。历官侍中尚书仆射，封亭东武侯。魏初任相，明帝时迁太傅，世称"钟太傅",卒谥成侯。他的书法，以曹喜、蔡邕、刘德升为师，博采众长，兼善各体，尤精小楷。结构朴实严谨，笔势自然，开创了由隶书到楷书的新貌。和晋代王羲之并称"钟王"。他的书法历代为人所重视。钟的真迹，早已失传，宋代以来法帖中所刻的小楷《宣示表》，《荐季直表》等都是晋唐人临摹本。

画祖——顾恺之

在中国绘画史上，魏晋南北朝(公元420——公元581年)是一个非常重要的历史时期。长期南北战乱，朝代频繁更替，使当时的文化思想格外活跃，促进了艺术的发展。这一时期的石窟壁画、墓室壁画、石刻、砖刻以及漆画等都已达到相当高的水平，出现了开宗立派的专业画家、书法家，作为奠基中国绘画理论基础的“六法论”也在这一时期提出。在绘画上，被尊为画祖的顾恺之和他的卷轴画最具有代表性。顾恺之(公元344——公元405年)是东晋时期（公元317——公元420年）的

画家。原名长康，字虎头，晋陵（今江苏无锡）人。出生在一个官僚家庭，年青时做过官，有机会游览各地的风景。他精通诗文，历史上关于他的轶事有不少记载。还特别注意表现人物的特点。有个叫裴楷的人脸颊上有三根长汗毛，别人为他画像时，都不画出来，顾恺之却把这三根汗毛画得特别突出，而强调对象的特征。可见顾恺之善于用特征衬托人物的个性。

《洛神赋图》是根据三国时期曹操的儿子曹植所写《洛神赋》创作。《洛神赋》描绘了曹植与洛神相逢又相别的情节，发挥了高度的艺术想象力。画家注重对人物情态的刻画，山石、树木都富有装饰性。这一作品，与同一时期的敦煌壁画有相近的风格，对后世中国画产生了深远的影响。

顾恺之在绘画理论方面也很有成就，他留下来的论著有《论画》、《画云台山记》等。他主张作画要形神兼备，他提出的“传神论”成为中国绘画的基本理论之一。根据记载，顾恺之的作品有七十多件，他画过历史故事、神佛、人物、飞禽走兽、山水等题材。可惜，现在能看到的只有《女史箴图》、《洛神赋图》和《列女仁智图》三幅卷轴画摹本了，它们是现在所知道最早的卷轴画。

Gu Kaizhi -- Originator of Painting

Chinese painting came a long way during the 300-year period that saw the rise and fall of the Three Kingdoms (220-280), Jin Dynasty (265-420) and Northern and Southern Dynasties (420-581). Apart from the chaos of war and dynastic changes during this period, active intellectual life of different schools also provided a great impetus for artistic development. Well-known grotto murals, tomb paintings, stone carvings, brick carvings and lacquered paintings were produced at the time, and a number of virtuosos emerged in Chinese calligraphy and painting. Certain painting theories, such as the Graphic Theory and the Six-Rule Theory that form the theoretical basis for present-day Chinese painting, were also put forward. Gu Kaizhi, known as the founder of traditional Chinese painting, and his scroll paintings, represented the painting style of the period.

Gu was born into an official family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province and served as a government officer at a young age. Having toured many beautiful places, Gu was proficient in writing poetry and essays; Chinese art history abounds in anecdotes about him.

When the construction of a temple was planned for Jiankang (Nanjing) and the monks and abbot could not collect enough money to build it, a young man offered to donate a large sum of money. He suggested he would draw a picture of the Buddha on the wall and, in the process, collect donations from curious passersby. For three consecutive days, thousands of people flocked to see the young man at work. By adding the final touches to the picture, the Buddha seemed to come alive, and the viewers cheered and applauded the young man's artistry. Hence, the money needed for the consummate construction of the temple was obtained.

The young man who paid great attention to the details that revealed the characteristics of his subjects was none other than Gu Kaizhi.

Gu was once was asked to paint Pei Kai's portrait, a man with three, long, fine hairs on his face that had been ignored by other painters. Gu laid great emphasis on the three hairs, and Pei was very satisfied. Another time, Gu painted a man named Xie Kun standing in the midst of mountains and rocks. When asked the reason for the setting, Gu explained that Xie loved to travel and see beautiful mountains and rivers. Such stories demonstrate Gu's skill of creating atmospheres that enhanced the characteristics of his subjects.

The theme of the Luoshen Appraisal Painting (luo shen fu) was drawn from the article, Luoshen Appraisal, written by Cao Zhi, son of the Wei Emperor Cao Cao. The painting depicts the meeting between Cao Zhi and the Goddess Luoshen at Luoshui River, vividly capturing the mood of their first meeting and eventual separation. Gu emphasized his subjects' expressions, with the stones, mountains and trees having an ornamental purpose. Gu's paintings, which greatly influenced later traditional Chinese paintings, are similar in style to the Dunhuang murals.

Gu also made great advances in summarizing painting theories. His theoretical works included Painting Thesis and Notes on Painting Yuntai Mountain. Gu paid considerable attention to the vivid expressions of his subjects to expose their spirit. His Graphic Theory later became a basic theory for traditional Chinese painting. According to historical records, Gu created more than 70 paintings based on historical stories, Buddha, human figures, birds, animals, mountains and rivers. His three existing scroll paintings include the Nvshi Zhen Painting, Luoshen Appraisal Painting and Lienv Renzhi Painting -- the earliest examples of scroll paintings.

画圣——吴道子

在中国古代艺术史上，有三位艺术家被称作"圣"人：一位是晋代（公元265--公元420年）王羲之，被称为书圣；一位是唐代（公元618--公元907年）杜甫，被称为诗圣；还有一位被誉为画圣，那就是唐代的吴道子。

吴道子一生主要活动在唐朝开元、天宝年间(公元713--公元755年)。吴道子出生在阳翟(今河南禹县)，小时侯就失去双亲，生活贫困，为了生计向民间画工和雕匠学习，由于他刻苦好学，才华出众，20岁时，就已经很有名

气。唐代皇帝把他召入宫中担任宫廷画师，为他改名道玄。成了御用画家的他，没有皇帝的命令，不能擅自作画。这样，一方面对他这样一个平民意识很强的艺术家是一种约束和限制，另一方面，他得到了最优厚的生活条件，不再到处流浪，可以施展自己的艺术才华。吴道子性格豪爽，喜欢在酒醉时作画。传说他在描绘壁画中佛头顶上的圆光时，不用尺规，挥笔而成。在龙兴寺作画的时候，观看者水泄不通。他画画时速度很快，像一阵旋风，一气呵成。当时的都城长安是中国的文化中心，汇集了许多著名的文人和书画家。吴道子经常和这些人在一起，相互促进、提高技艺。

吴道子主要从事宗教壁画的创作，他创作的作品题材广泛，数量也很大。据说寺廊壁画有三百余件，有记录的卷轴画有一百多件。其中佛教、道教题材最多，还有山水、花鸟、走兽等。《送子天王图》这幅画反映了吴道子的基本画风，他打破了长期以来历代沿袭顾恺之的那种游丝线描法。吴道子开创兰叶描，用笔讲究起伏变化，和内在的精神力量。他在创作的时候，处于一种高度兴奋与紧张状态，很有点表现主义的味道。

Wu Daozi, Sage in Chinese Painting

In Chinese history, three people are revered as sages: the calligrapher Wang Xizhi of the West Jin Dynasty (265-316), the poet Du Fu of the Tang Dynasty (618-907) and the painter Wu Daozi, also of the Tang Dynasty.

Wu's most prolific period was during the Kaiyuan and Tianbao eras (713-755) in the Tang Dynasty. Born in Yangzhai (Yu County in Henan Province), Wu lost both his parents at a young age and lived a hard life in his early years. He learned how to make a living from folk artists and sculptors. Because Wu studied hard and was talented in art, he earned himself a good reputation as a painter by the time he was 20 years old. Emperor Xuanzong invited Wu as an imperial painter in the court, naming him Daoxuan. As an imperial painter, Wu only painted at the emperor's request, which was a big restriction for a civilian painter. On the other hand, the court provided the best living conditions and was an outlet for artistic creativity.

Wu's character was unrestrained, direct and indifferent to trivial matters, and it is known he always drank while painting. It is also said that when Wu drew the halo around Buddha's head in a mural, he only used his brushes without drafting the measurements first; when he painted at Longxing Temple, the temple was always packed with observers. Wu moved his brush quickly, and most of his works were accomplished in a single session. Chang'an (present day Xi'an), capital of the Tang Dynasty, was the cultural center of the time where many famous men of letters and artists lived. Wu had many opportunities to stay with them, which helped improve his painting skills.

Wu mainly created religious murals all his life and his abundant works had a wide range of subjects. According to records, Wu painted over 300 murals and more than 100 scrolls. While many of them involved Buddhism and Taoism, Wu also drew mountains, rivers, flowers and birds. The Presentation of Buddha is his most representative work. Unlike his predecessor Gu Kaizhi, whose line strokes were slender and forceful but lacked variety, Wu's strokes were full of change and vigor, expressing the internal world of his subjects. Wu was always in great ferment when he was painting, and his works exhibit an expressionist style.

美术史论家——张彦远

张彦远《历代名画记》

中国唐代时期的（公元618——公元907年）张彦远，字爱宾，蒲州猗氏(今山西省临猗县)人。他出生在宰相家庭，学问渊博，擅长书画。曾经任职官左仆射补阙、祠部员外郎、大理卿。编写的著作有《法书要录》、《彩笺诗集》和中国第一部绘画通史《历代名画记》。

《历代名画记》这本书总结了古人有关画史和画论的研究成果，继承发展了史和论相结合的传统，开创了编写绘画通史的完备体例。作者尽可能运用丰富资料，从当时的理论认识水平探讨绘画史的发展和内在联系，并以系统的绘画史料来支持自己的理论认识。全书用大量的篇幅阐述绘画史和某些画科的发展演进，讨论重大的理论问题。传记部分比较全面地汇集画家生平、思想、创作等有关资料，充分引证古人的评价，但又不受前人的局限，做到有分寸

地评价画家的得失。此外，作者更能从绘画创作欣赏的全过程着眼，把著录、鉴藏、流传、以至装裱也纳入进研究画史的必要组成部分，对于中国画史的研究提出了完整的体系。这本书长期以来被认为是中国第一部系统完整的绘画通史，具有当时绘画“百科全书”的性质，在中国绘画史学的发展中，具有承先启后的里程碑的意义。

总结张彦远的艺术观点主要有几项特征，他在肯定谢赫等人关于绘画具有道德的，政治的功能以外，更重视绘画本身的意义。张彦远强调绘画需要天才，反对呆板的死画，他强调绘画技巧的根本在于立意和用笔。他还强调绘画艺术的文化品味，特别看重画家的人格，他最早提出绘画是有教养、有学问、有独立人格的读书人的事业。张彦远在中国古代理论上所取得的成就是历史性的，从他较早的研究分析美术作品来看，称他是中国最早的艺术理论家、批评家一点也不夸张。

Art Historian: Zhang Yanyuan

Zhang Yanyuan, styling himself Aibin, was the art historian of the Tang Dynasty (618-907). Born into a chancellor family in Yishi of Puzhou (Linqi County of Shanxi Province), Zhang took office as zuopushe buque, ministry counselor of the Ci department and chief minister of Dali. He was a learned scholar and excellent painter and calligrapher. Zhang's works include Fashu Yaolu, Collection of Poems on Color Paper and the first general history of art -- Records of Historical Famous Paintings.

Records of Historical Famous Paintings gave a summation of ancients' achievements in painting history. Following the tradition of combining historical facts and painting critics, Zhang initiated the style of general art history. By using abundant materials, Zhang's research focused on the development and internal relations of art history, using systematic historical painting materials to support his theories. The book extensively covered the development and significant theories of the history of painting. The biography section consisted of comprehensive records of painters' lives, thoughts and works. Zhang passed equitable judgments on painters by quoting predecessors, yet still developed his own ideas. From the point of view of the whole process of art creation and appreciation, Zhang brought recording, appraising, collecting, circulating and even mounting to the list of indispensable components, which gave rise to the integral research system of Chinese painting history. For a long time, the book was regarded as China's first publication on the general painting history and bibliography of painting of the period. It had a unique position in the development of Chinese painting as a link between the past and future.

In general, there are several features to Zhang's artistic theory. Apart from confirming Xie He's theory that painting had moral and political functions, Zhang put more emphasis on the meaning of painting itself. Opposing dull and stereotyped painting styles, Zhang stressed that painting needs ingenious creation and that the basic skill of painting lay in conception and stroke. A painter's cultural taste and personality were also very important to painting. Zhang was the first to forward the theory that painting was a career of moral scholars who had knowledge and unique personalities. As one of the earliest art theorists and critics, Zhang contributed many achievements to the theory of ancient painting history.

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毛笔史话

在林林总总的笔类制品中，毛笔可算是中国独有的品类了。传统的毛笔不但是古人必备的文房用具，而且在表达中华书法、绘画的特殊韵味上具有与众不同的魅力。

砚和笔，墨的诞生好比是孪生兄弟，几乎是同时出生，互相联系，互相影响，互相促进的。它们发端于新石器时代晚期，成形于商周，成长发展于秦汉，兴盛于唐宋，明清为其鼎盛时期，并一直沿用至今。随着时代的发展，它们正渐渐地成为实用而精美的艺术品，在各个不同时代表现出不同特色，并产生了一些光耀古今的代表人物及艺术作品。

我国古代的笔就是毛笔，它究竟产生于新石器时代晚期的什么时候，目前还没有比较确切的定论

清晰流畅，粗细得宜，色彩和水份饱和，这不是用一般竹木削成的笔所能表现出来的，而必须用蓄水多，柔软而有弹性的裹束起来的毛才能做到的。毛笔的雏形可能就在这个时候出现了。至殷商时期，在河南安阳发掘出来的陶器中，有用笔书写的痕迹。1932年发掘出一片写有"祀"字的陶片，笔锋清晰。1936年又出土了一件用朱笔书写的陶器和一些先写（亦用朱笔）后刻的卜辞甲骨片。这说明，我国的毛笔起源于新石器时代晚期，在商代已开始运用于绘画和书写了。

古笔的品种较多，从笔毫的原料上来分，就曾有兔毛、白羊毛、青羊毛、黄羊毛、羊须、马毛、鹿毛、麝毛、獾毛、狸毛、貂鼠毛、鼠须、鼠尾、虎毛、狼尾、狐毛、獭毛、猩猩毛、鹅毛、鸭毛、鸡毛、雉毛、猪毛、胎发、人须、茅草等。从性能上分，则有硬毫、软毫、兼毫。从笔管的质地来分，又有水竹、鸡毛竹、斑竹、棕竹、紫擅木、鸡翅木、檀香木、楠木、花梨木、况香木、雕漆、绿沉漆、螺细、象牙、犀角、牛角、麟角、玳瑁、玉、水晶、琉璃、金、银、瓷等，其中不少是珍贵的材料。

经过长期的实践，人们发现兔毛才是制笔的最好原料，尤以秋冬的山兔毛为佳，因其质坚和健，春夏的兔毛则不好用。目前我们所能看到的最早的毛笔，当是湖南，河南出土的战国时期毛笔。笔管竹制，用麻丝把兔箭毛包裹在竹轩的外周，形成笔头，笔锋坚而挺。1954年在湖南长沙左家公山战国墓中出土的一支毛笔，是极佳的野兔箭毛所制，极宜书写简牍。还有1975年湖北云梦睡虎地秦墓出土的一支毛笔，其形制和战国笔大致相同，并在此基础上有所改良。在战国时，对于笔的称呼不一，楚称"聿"，吴称"不律"，燕称"弗"，秦统一六国后，才统一称为"笔。

毛笔鉴赏

毛笔虽然是实用工具，但随着社会经济文化的发展，毛笔的制作工艺不断改进，使毛笔日益完善和精美，逐渐也成为收藏，鉴赏的珍玩古物。但毛笔不易保存，笔毫易坏，所以毛笔的鉴赏更着眼于装饰意味浓厚，色彩艳丽的笔管上。笔毫的形制是为书写、绘画的需要而改进的。古人以竹笋式笔毫为我国传统品类，属于短锋羊毫，兼毫笔类，锋短而粗，形如笋状，落纸凝重厚实，除实用外，给人以鉴常趣味。又有兰花式笔毫，也是我国传统毛笔品类之一，笔头圆润，洁白纯净娇柔，似含苞欲放之玉兰，给人以秀美之

感，赏心悦目。古代还有一种笔毫做成葫芦式，兼毫圆润坚劲。

笔管成为鉴赏和珍藏的对象后，人们便常以珍宝珠玉制毛笔管。如清乾隆四十三年（1778）唐秉钧在《文房肆考图说》卷三《笔说》中说："汉制笔，雕以黄金，饰以和璧，缀以隋珠，文以翡翠。管非文犀，必以象牙，极为华丽矣。"此时的毛笔，不仅是书画工具，还是供人鉴赏观玩的艺术品。古代工匠在周不盈寸的毛笔管上，巧妙的描绘，镌刻山水人物，花卉鸟兽，足以表现工艺的独特高超。故宫收藏的明代黑漆，彩漆描金云龙，龙凤管笔是传世文房四宝中的珍品。鉴别古笔，首先对保存的遗物和各个时代古笔的历史要做系统了解和认识，分清笔的历史上限下限，区分制笔地区，把握各时廷御制品。其次看笔毫完好与损坏情况。而后再着眼于笔管的装饰，是否有制笔名家的镌刻，是否有名人的赠语及题跋。对制笔名家和名人的时代特点，个人风格，要有丰富的科学文化知识，才能识别和鉴别，从而审定其文物价值。

Among the various calligraphic tools, the writing brush is special to China. It represents one of the four treasures of study, which also include paper, ink and ink stone.

The writing brush has a long history in China. Legend has it that the brush was invented by Meng Tian (? - 210 BC), a general under the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty (221-206BC), but primitive painted pottery contains decorative designs painted by tools resembling a brush. Clearly visible stains or brush marks remain in certain places on the pottery. This evidence suggests that the brush may have predated written language itself. The history of the Chinese brush can be traced back at least 6,000 years.

A brush comprises two parts: the head and shaft. The head is made of goat, wolf, rat or rabbit hair, which is softer than bamboo, a pencil, quill or ballpoint pen. The shaft is made of bamboo, wood, lacquer and porcelain, as well as some precious materials, including mother-of-pearl inlays, ivory and jade.

There are four types of famous writing brushes in China.

1. The Hu Writing Brush, produced in Huzhou City, Zhejiang Province

The Huzhou writing brush falls into four categories. The first is made of goat hair, which is very flexible; the second, of brownish rabbit hair; the third, of stiff weasel hair; and the fourth is a mixture of goat and weasel hair, which is neither too flexible nor too stiff.

The workmanship of the brush is exquisite and complicated since it contains more than 120 processes -- from selecting materials to the finished products.

These brushes are especially handy both for painting and calligraphy. Due to its shaft, this type of brush is usually made of either red sandalwood or mottled bamboo, white porcelain or even with ivory. It is therefore regarded as the best-quality brush and the most exquisite handicraft.

2. The Xuan Writing Brush

The Xuan writing brush, together with the famous Xuan paper, is made in Jingxian County, Anhui Province. In ancient times, Jingxian County was under the jurisdiction of Xuanzhou Prefecture, where the product got its name.

Scholars of the Jin Dynasty (256-420) were especially fond of the Xuan brush. During the Tang (618-907) and Song (960-1279) dynasties, Xuanzhou became a writing-brush manufacturing center, and the Xuan brush was listed as a tribute to emperors.

At that time, folk artisans made a breakthrough in craftsmanship in selecting materials and polishing the shaft. Brushes were both sharp and neatly cut, and plump and smooth at the tip, enabling artists to write and draw freely. The Xuan brushes, made elaborately from brownish rabbit hair, are considered to be the best and come at a very high price.

3. The Daiyuexuan Writing Brush

This writing brush was originally made by the venerable artisan Dai Yuexuan. Now, the brush is well known in Beijing for its high quality and elaborate craftsmanship. With the semi-manufactured writing brushes from Huzhou of Zhejiang Province as the main material, artisans used their immense skills to create a tool with a unique, sharp point, neat cut, with a smooth roundness and graceful stiffness at the tip. Because of these four characteristics, this brand enjoyed high prestige among artists and calligraphers.

Dai actually worked for a writing-brush workshop located by the east entrance to the Liulichang Cultural Street in Beijing 80 years ago. His brushes were much better than the brand from Huzhou, even though the same materials were used. Later on, the Daiyuexuan brand became renowned far and wide.

4. The Houdian Writing Brush, produced in Houdian Village

The manufacture of writing brushes came into existence in Houdian Village of Shandong Province during the reign of Emperor Yongle around 1404 of the Ming Dynasty, and flourished in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). In the early years of the Republic of China, almost all brushes sold at Beijing's famous Daiyuexuan and Hukaiwen stores were made by workers from Houdian. In 1952, the Houdian people built a large plant to pass on the traditional craftsmanship to the younger generation and to develop it.

The main materials for the brush come from animals' tails, such the wolf and civet, or ox ear hair, in more than 40 varieties. Hair collected in the winter is best for making high-quality brushes. Five main procedures are followed strictly to produce the brush correctly: washing and dying of the hair, carving characters on the shafts, packaging, and miscellaneous processes. Each of the five procedures contains about a dozen processes before a uniquely shaped brush with a special specification is made for different purposes.

Brushes made at Houdian Village are durable, offering a good combination of flexibility and stiffness, the ability to absorb more ink than others, and with little likelihood that the hair will out.

Without the writing brush, Chinese painting and calligraphy could not have achieved such distinct features, and thus would not have enjoyed such great success around the world. The writing brush makes great contributions to the dissemination of Chinese culture. With the development of social economy and culture, craftsmanship is continually improving, and the types of writing brushes are on the rise.

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汉服

中国完整的服装服饰制度在汉朝确立的。汉代染织工艺、剌绣工艺和金属工艺发展较快，推动了服装装饰的变化。

西汉建立时基本上沿用秦朝的服制。东汉时期穿黑色衣服必配紫色丝织的装饰物。祭祀大典上通用的是"长冠服"。皇后的祭祀服是：上衣用绀色，下裳用皂色。皇后的蚕服，上衣用青色，下裳用缥色（浅黄色）。汉文帝当政时比较俭朴，自己穿黑色丝织衣、皮鞋。一般官员要穿禅衣，又名"祗服"。在西汉时期二百年之中，服饰实行"深衣制"，它的特点是象蝉一样的头冠（帽子）、红色的衣服、象田字状的领子、戴玉　、红色的鞋。深衣形制是上衣下裳相连接缝在一起，做祭服的中衣，要缘黑色边，作为朝服的中衣，需缘红色边，当时男女服用极为普遍。服饰总称"禅衣"。禅衣是单层的外衣。禅衣里面有中衣、深衣，其形与禅衣无大区别，只是袖形有变化，都属于单层布帛衣裳。官员在上朝时都要穿黑色禅衣。

汉衣款式以衣襟分类，可以划分两种：一为"曲裾禅衣"，即开襟是从领曲斜至腋下；一为直裾禅衣，是开襟从领向下垂直，此种禅衣又称""。曲裾，即为战国时期流行的深衣。汉代仍然沿用，到东汉，男子穿深衣的已经不多了，一般为直裾衣，但并不能作为正式礼服。这种服式既长又宽，从款式上官民服用基本没有差别，但从原料和颜色上，却可明显显示等级的不同。

汉代朝服的服色有具体规定，一年四季按五时着服，即春季用青色；夏季用红色；季夏用黄色；秋季用白色；冬季用黑色。

汉代着衣有七个特点：

1、穿外衣时，由于领大而且弯曲，穿衣时必需暴露中衣的领型；

2、穿衣必用白色面料做里；

3、袖宽为一尺二寸；

4、衫无袖；

5、穿皮毛服装时裘毛朝外；

6、腰带极为考究，所用带钩以金制成各种兽形，如螳螂形或琵琶形。形象十分生动有趣。一般长度在一寸半至六寸之间，是衣裳中间显要的装饰物。汉带钩从形、色和工艺上都达到了极高的水平，较比西周和战国时期，在设计和制作方面都要精美得多。因此颇受男人们的喜爱，佩戴者很多；

7、男子保持佩刀习俗，但所佩之刀有形无刃，因此失去了实际价值，主要是显示仪容。

汉代祭服延用"大　制度"，遵从古礼穿冕服佩绶、佩玉。皇帝、公卿、诸侯均用大　，只是在所系玉石的串珠或丝绳的质地上加以区别。皇太后、太后、公卿夫人等的祭服(谒庙服)、亲蚕服、朝见服和婚礼服的形式都采用深衣制。

汉时劳动女子总是上穿短襦，下穿长裙，膝上装饰长长垂下的腰带。劳动男子常服是上身穿襦，下身穿犊鼻裤，并在衣外围罩布裙；这种装束不分工奴、农奴、商贾、士人都一样。

Costume in the Han Dynasty

China's complete code of costume and trappings was established in the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD). The yarn-dyeing, embroidering and metal-processing technologies developed rapidly in the period, spurring changes in costume and adornments.

The costume code of the Western Han Dynasty (206BC-8AD) followed the one established in the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC). In the Eastern Han Dynasty, people in black had to wear purple silk adornments to match their clothes. People usually wore costume with a long hat at grand ceremonies offering sacrifices to gods or ancestors. The dress of the queen in these ceremonies consisted of dark-purple frock and black trousers. The silk dress of the queen consisted of cyan frock and buff trousers.

The Western Han Dynasty implemented the Shenyi (long coat) system, which featured a cicada-shaped hat, red clothes and "田"-shaped collar. In addition, people of that time wore jade articles and red shoes. The frock and skirt were sewn together in the Shenyi system. Underpants for memorial ceremonies were decorated with black brims, and those for court dress in feudal China were decorated with red brims. All the garments were collectively called as Chanyi (unlined garment).

Costumes in the Han Dynasty fell into two categories according to Yijin (one or two pieces making up the front of a Chinese jacket or grown). There were two types of garments: the curving-front unlined garment with buttons deviously down from the collar to the axilla; the straight-front unlined garment with buttons were straightly down from the collar to the lower part. Curving-front garment originated from the Shenyi (long coat) prevalent in the Warring States Period, and was still in use in the Han Dynasty. But few people wore the Shenyi garments during the Eastern Han Dynasty.

There were specific stipulations on colors of court garments in the Han Dynasty. Officers must wear garments according to the five time periods, i.e. cyan garments in the spring, red in the first two months of the summer, yellow in the last month of the summer, white in the autumn and black in the winter.

Costumes of the Han Dynasty had 7 features:

1. Wearers must expose underpants' collar form , as the collar was big and curving;

2. Clothes must use white cloth as lining;

3. The width of sleeve was 0.4 meters;

4. The blouse had no sleeve;

5. Wearers of fur clothes should have the fur facing outside;

6. Waistband was very exquisite. Belt hook was made of gold in various lively and interesting animal figures;

7. The male kept the habitude of wearing walking sabres without blades for decoration only.

Female laborers of the Han Dynasty always wore short jackets and long skirts, and their knees were always decorated with long hanging waistbands. Male laborers often wore jackets and calf-nose trousers with aprons around the garments. Farmers, workers, businessmen and scholars were all in the same dressing style at that time.

唐服

唐代大袖衫

唐朝还流行女子穿"胡服"。"胡服"就是西域人的服装。腰带形式也深受胡服影响。在此以前，人们的腰饰是以金银铜铁，这时候流行系"蹀躞带"，带上有金饰，并扣有短而小的小带以作系物之用。这种腰带服用最盛是在唐代，以后延用一直至北宋年代。

盛唐以后，胡服的影响逐渐减弱，女服的样式日趋宽大。到了中晚唐时期，这种特点更加明显，一般妇女服装，袖宽往往四尺以上。中晚唐的贵族礼服，一般多在重要场合穿着，穿着这种礼服，发上还簪有金翠花钿，所以又称"钿钗礼衣"。

唐高宗以后，以紫色为三品官的服色；浅绯色为五品官服色，深绿色为六品官服色，浅绿色为七品官服色，深青色为八品官服色，浅青色为九品官服色，黄色为宫外之人及庶民服色。

唐装还对邻国有很大的影响。比如日本和服从色彩上大大吸取了唐装的精华，朝鲜服也从形式上承继了唐装的长处。唐装襦裙线条柔长，十分优美自如，用料主要是丝织品，因此它的衣物以"软"和"飘柔"著称。唐装本身品类多，善变化，从外形到装饰均大胆吸收外来服饰特点，多以中亚、印度、伊朗、波斯及北方和西域外族服饰为参考，充实唐代服饰文化，使得唐代服饰丰富多采富丽堂皇，风格独特奇异多姿，成为中国历史服饰中的一朵奇葩，世人瞩目。

Costume in the Tang Dynasty

The unified and prosperous China was established in the Tang Dynasty (618-907). In China's history, the Tang Dynasty was a period when the polity and economy were highly developed and the culture and art were thriving.

Women's dress and personal adornments of the Tang Dynasty were outstanding in China's history. The clothing materials were exquisite, the structure was natural, graceful and elegant, and adornments were splendid. Though the forms of garments were still the continuation of the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD) and the Sui Dynasty (581-618), they were influenced by cultures and arts of the Western Regions. Especially, the national power of the High Tang was strong. The trades and cultural exchanges with Korea, Vietnam, Japan, Persia and other countries gradually became frequent, and they mutually dispatched emissaries and accepted students of other countries. In this way, a special open and romantic style of dress and personal adornments was formed.

Because of communication with the Western Regions, the influence of dressing culture of other minorities on the Tang court also reflected the change of thoughts and concepts. Chinese women were seriously restricted by the old Confucian or feudal ethical code all through the ages. The social status of ancient women was very low: they often served as Jileren (music performer), Guanji (official performer), Gongji (palace performer) and Jiaji (family performer), and were regarded as the playthings and goods that can be sold and bought by rich people. Some females had rebel spirit in the Tang Dynasty, so they climbed or jumped over the walls and went to the nature to view the beautiful scenes and/or go sightseeing in the spring by riding horses with men. Just as recorded by many historical materials, some girls therefore dressed as boys in order to go out.

It was a fashion for women to wear Hufu (garments of the Tartars or those who lived in the Western Regions). After the High Tang, the influences of Hufu were gradually weakened and women's garments became broad and loose day by day. As to ordinary women's garments, the width of sleeve was always more than 1.3 meters.

After the reign of Tang Emperor Gaozong, purple was used as the garment color for officials above the third grade; light red for officials above the fifth grade; dark green for officials above the sixth grade; light green for officials above the seventh grade; dark cyan for officials above the eighth grade; light cyan for officials above the ninth grade; and yellow for ordinary people and those who did not live in the palace.

The garments in the Tang Dynasty also greatly affected the garments of neighboring countries. For instance, Japanese kimono adopted the elites of the dresses of the Tang Dynasty in terms of colors, and the Hanbok (traditional Korean clothing) also adopted the advantages of the dresses of the Tang Dynasty. The dresses of the Tang Dynasty were mainly made of silk, so dresses were famous for softness and lightness. The dresses of the Tang Dynasty boldly adopted the features of foreign garments in terms of forms and adornments; i.e. they mainly referred to the garments of other countries (such as the Central-Asia countries, India, Iran, Persia, northern countries and the Western Regions) and used them to improve the habilatory culture of the Tang Dynasty.

旗袍

旗袍是从满族古老的服装演变而来的。旗袍，满语称"衣介"。古时泛指满洲、蒙古、汉军八旗男女穿的衣袍。

清初（公元1644年-公元1911年）衣袍式样有几大特点：无领、箭袖、左衽、四开衩、束腰。箭袖，是窄袖口，上加一块半圆形袖头，形似马蹄，又称"马蹄袖"。马蹄袖平日绾起，出猎作战时则放下，覆盖手背，冬季可御寒。四开衩，即袍下摆前后左右，开衩至膝．左衽和束腰，紧身保暖，腰带一束，行猎时，可将干粮，用具装进前襟。男子的长袍多是蓝，灰、青色，女子的旗装多为白色．满族旗袍还有一个特点，就是在旗袍外套上坎肩。坎肩有对襟、捻襟、琵琶襟、一字襟等。穿上坎肩骑马驰聘显得十分精干利索。

清世祖入关，迁都北京，旗袍开始在中原流行。清统一中国，也统一全国服饰，男人穿长袍马褂，女人穿旗袍。以后，随着满汉生活的融合，统一，旗袍不仅被汉族妇女吸收，并不断进行革新。特别随着辛亥革命的风云，旗袍迅速在全国普及。

自30年代起，旗袍几乎成了中国妇女的标准服装，民间妇女、学生、工人、达官显贵的太太，无不穿着。旗袍甚至成了交际场合和外交活动的礼服。后来，旗袍还传至国外，为他国女子效仿穿着。至20世纪30年代，满族男女都穿直统式的宽襟大袖长袍。女性旗袍下摆至（骨干）(小腿)，有绣花卉纹饰。男性旗袍下摆及踝，无纹饰。

40年代后，受国内外新式服饰新潮的冲击，满族男性旗袍已废弃，女性旗袍由宽袖变窄袖，直筒变紧身贴腰，臀部略大，下摆回收，长及踝，逐渐形成今日各色各样讲究色彩装饰和人体线条美的旗袍样式。

汉族妇女为啥喜爱穿旗袍？主要旗袍的造型与妇女的体态相适合，线条简便，优美大方，所以，有人认为旗袍是中国女人独有的福音，可起到彩云托月的作用。而且，旗袍是老少宜穿，四季相宜，雅俗共赏。根据季节的变化和穿着者的不同需要、爱好，可长可短，可做单旗袍、夹旗袍；也可做衬绒短袍、丝棉旗袍。并且，随着选料不同，可展现出不同风格。选用小花、素格、细条丝绸制作，可显示出温和、稳重的风韵；选用织锦类衣料制作，可当迎宾、赴宴的华贵眼饰。

当中国旗袍在日本、法国等地展销时，很受当地妇女人士欢迎，她们不借重金，争购旗袍，特别是黑丝绒夹金花、篓金花的高档旗袍，最为抢手。旗袍正以浓郁的民族风格，体现了中华民族传统的服饰美。它不仅成为中国女装的代表，同时也公认为东方传统女装的象征。

Chinese Cheongsam

The cheongsam, or Qipao in Chinese, is evolved from a kind of ancient clothing of Manchu ethnic minority. In ancient times, it generally referred to long gowns worn by the people of Manchuria, Mongolia and the Eight-Banner.

In the early years of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), long gowns featured collarless, narrow cuff in the shape of a horse's hoof, buttons down the left front, four slits and a fitting waist. Wearers usually coiled up their cuff, and put it down when hunting or battling to cover the back of hand. In winter, the cuff could serve to prevent cold. The gown had four slits, with one on the left, right, front and back, which reached the knees. It was fitted to the body and rather warm. Fastened with a waistband, the long gown could hold solid food and utensils when people went out hunting. Men's long gowns were mostly blue, gray or green; and women's, white.

Another feature of Manchu cheongsam was that people generally wore it plus a waistcoat that was either with buttons down the front, a twisted front, or a front in the shape of lute, etc.

When the early Manchu rulers came to China proper, they moved their capital to Beijing and cheongsam began to spread in the Central Plains. The Qing Dynasty unified China, and unified the nationwide costume as well. At that time, men wore a long gown and a mandarin jacket over the gown, while women wore cheongsam. Although the 1911 Revolution toppled the rule of the Qing (Manchu) Dynasty, the female dress survived the political change and, with succeeding improvements, has become the traditional dress for Chinese women.

Till the 1930s, Manchu people, no matter male or female, all wore loose-fitting and straight-bottomed broad-sleeved long gowns with a wide front. The lower hem of women's cheongsam reached the calves with embroidered flower patterns on it, while that of men's cheongsam reached the ankles and had no decorative patterns.

From the 1930s, cheongsam almost became the uniform for women. Folk women, students, workers and highest-tone women all dressed themselves in cheongsam, which even became a formal suit for occasions of social intercourses or diplomatic activities. Later, cheongsam even spread to foreign countries and became the favorite of foreign females.

After the 1940s, influenced by new fashion home and abroad, Manchu men's cheongsam was phased out, while women's cheongsam became narrow-sleeved and fitted to the waist and had a relatively loose hip part, and its lower hem reached the ankles. Then there emerge various forms of cheongsams we see today that emphasize color decoration and set off the beauty of the female shape.

Why do Han people like to wear the cheongsam? The main reason is that it fits well the female Chinese figure, has simple lines and looks elegant. What's more, it is suitable for wearing in all seasons by old and young.

The cheongsam can either be long or short, unlined or interlined, woolen or made of silk floss. Besides, with different materials, the cheongsam presents different styles. Cheongsams made of silk with patterns of flowerlet, plain lattices or thin lines demonstrate charm of femininity and staidness; those made of brocade are eye-catching and magnificent and suitable for occasions of greeting guests and attending banquets.

When Chinese cheongsams were exhibited for sales in countries like Japan and France, they received warm welcome from local women, who did not hesitate to buy Chinese cheongsams especially those top-notch ones made of black velour interlined with or carved with golden flowers. Cheongsam features strong national flavor and embodies beauty of Chinese traditional costume. It not only represents Chinese female costume but also becomes a symbol of the oriental traditional costume.

中国少数民族的服饰文化

中国少数民族服饰绚丽多彩，精美绝伦,各具特色。它是各民族优秀历史文化的重要组成部分。

服饰制作从原料、纺织工艺,以至样式、装饰都保持着鲜明的民族和地区特色。以捕角为主要经济生活的赫哲族早年曾以鱼皮为衣,曾长期从事狩猎的鄂伦春、鄂温克等族狍皮兽筋缝制衣服。经营畜牧业的蒙古族、藏族、哈萨克族、柯尔克孜族、裕固族等，穿戴多取诸牲畜皮毛。从事农业的少数民族则以当地出产的棉麻丝为原料，纺织布帛丝绸，缝制衣服。

少数民族的纺织、鞣皮、擀毡等工艺，有着悠久的历史。如黎族的木棉布、藏族的氆氇、维吾尔族的爱得丽丝绸、鄂伦春的皮毛制品等素负盛名。

中国少数民族服饰款式纷繁，各自有异。大体上有长袍和短衣两类。穿袍子的民族一般戴帽蹬靴，穿短衣的民族多缠帕着履。袍子形式也多种多样，有蒙古、满、土等民族的高领大襟式，有藏、门巴等族的无领斜襟式，有维吾尔等族的右　斜襟式等，还有坎肩式长袍。短衣有裤和裙之别。

裙子款式有百褶裙、筒裙、短裙、连衣裙等。无论是袍、衣、裙、裤，不同的民族在结构、工艺、风格等方面都有差别，同是高领大襟袍，有开叉和不开叉的，有前后开叉的，有前后开叉和周围镶边的、黎、傣、景颇、德昂等民族妇女都穿筒裙，但黎族为棉制锦裙、景颇族为毛织花裙、德昂族为横条纹裙，而傣族多为市购布料裙。

民族服饰不仅民族与民族之间存在着明显的区别，就是在民族内部，不同支系、不同地区也都有明显的差异。省与省之间，县与县之间，以至寨与寨之间都有差别，如百花齐放，千姿百态。服饰是民族最显而易见的标志，历史上曾因服饰不同赋予乎很多民族各种地方性的名称。

在中国这样一个地域辽阔，民族众多，社会发展不平衡的国家里，由于经济生活、文化素养和自然环境，地理气候的差异，从而导致民族服饰的多种多样，应该说这是民俗服饰的特点之一。中国少数民族的刺绣、蜡染等工艺相当发达，并广泛用于服饰装饰上，是民族服饰的又一特点。刺绣是各民族普遍喜爱的工艺，一般运用在头巾、腰带、围裙以及衣襟、环肩、下摆、袖口、裤脚、裙边等易损部位，既起装饰作用，又有实用价值。刺绣包括桃花、补花、绣花等多种工艺，绣花的手法有平绣、o绣、编绣、结绣、盘绣等，花纹图案有自然景物，吉祥图案和几何纹样等。

Costumes of Ethnic Minorities in China

Clothes of Chinese ethnic minorities are flowery and colorful, extremely exquisite, and highly distinctive. They constitute an important part of the rich history and culture of the ethnic groups.

A pleated skirt

Every aspect of their garments, such as raw materials, textile technology, fashion and decoration, retains a distinct characteristic of the ethnic group and the locality. The Hezhen ethnic minority people, who mainly make a living on fishing, used to make clothes with fishskin. The hunting ethnic groups, such as Oroqen and Ewenki, used roe skin and animal tendon to stitch up their clothes. The Mongolians, Tibetans, Kazakstans, Khalkhases, Yugurs, etc., who are mainly engaged in stockbreeding, make their apparel mostly from animal skin and hair. And, farming ethnic minorities usually take the locally produced cotton or hemp thread as raw materials to spin cloth and silk and make clothes.

Ethnic minorities' spinning and weaving, tanning and felting techniques boast a long history. For example, bombax cloth of the Li ethnic minority, woolen fabric of the Tibetan, Adelis silk of the Uygur, fur products of the Oroqen have enjoyed a worldwide reputation all along.

There are numerous clothing designs and forms in Chinese ethnic minorities. Generally speaking, they can be classified into two types: long gowns and short clothes. People usually wear a hat and boots to match long gowns, and headcloth and shoes to match short clothes. The gowns take various forms: the high-collar and big-front type worn by the Mongolian, the Manchu, the Tu and so on; the collarless tilted-front type worn by the Tibetan, the Moinba and so on; the tilted-front type worn by the Uygur and other ethnic minorities; and so on. As for short clothes, they fall into two types: trousers and skirts.

In terms of fashion of skirts, there are pleated skirts, tube skirts, short skirts, one-piece dress and so on. In any kind of clothes, no matter it is the gown, the coat, the skirt, or the trousers, different ethnic minority groups employ different structures, techniques and styles. Take high-collared big gowns for example. Some of them have kick pleat, some don't have any kick pleat, some have kick pleat both in front and on the back, and some have front and back kick pleat and edging all around. Women of the Li, the Dai, the Jingpo, the De'ang ethnic minorities and so on all wear tube skirts, but those tube skirts worn by the Li are brocade skirts made of cotton, those worn by the Jingpo are woolen multicolored skirts, those worn by the De'ang are skirts with horizontal stripes, and those worn by the Dai are usually skirts made of common cloth.

Costumes of ethnic minorities vary greatly not only with different nationalities, but also with different branches and different regions within the same ethnic group. Difference can be seen from province to province, from county to county, and even from village to village. Costume is the most obvious symbol of an ethnic group, and in the history, many ethnic groups were named just according to their garments.

In a vast country like China, with so many ethnic groups and an unbalanced social development, styles of clothes vary a lot due to different economic lives, cultural levels, natural environments and geographical conditions and climatic conditions. This is one of the characteristics of folk garments.

Some techniques of Chinese ethnic minorities such as embroidery and batik are much developed, and are widely used in making clothing adornments. This is another feature of their costumes.

Embroidery is a technique generally favored by all ethnic groups, and it is usually used in the headband, the waistband, the apron, and some rapid-wearing parts such as the border of the front, the round shoulder, the lower hem, the wristband, the bottom of trouser legs, the edge of the skirt, etc., being both decorative and practical. Embroidery techniques include cross-stitch work, applique, embroidering and so on; methods include surface, twine, chain, net, stab and stack embroidery, etc; patterns include natural scenes, auspicious patterns and geometric patterns and so on.

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中国民间工艺 Chinese Handicrafts

中国的“四大名绣”

"Four Famous Embroideries” of China

中国的传统刺绣工艺品当中，常常将产于中国中部湖南省的"湘绣"，中国西部四川省的"蜀绣"，产于中国南部广东省的"粤绣"和产于中国东部江苏省的"苏绣"合称为中国"四大名绣"。

湘绣

作为中国四大名绣之一的湘绣，向来以历史悠久，工艺精湛，风格独特，品类繁多而闻名海内外。迄今为止发现的最早的湘绣制品，是长沙马王堆一号汉代（公元前206年～公元220年）墓葬出土的一件丝织品，它所使用的针法与现代湘绣所差无几，说明早在两千多年前的汉代，湘绣工艺就已经产生了。此后经过漫长的发展，湘绣逐渐将国画传统特点引入其中，从而形成了自身的独特风格。至清末民初（20世纪初期），湘绣的发展达到鼎盛时期，甚至超越了苏绣，在中国刺绣业中独占鳌头。新中国成立后，湘绣工作者在继承传统的基础上致力创新，使湘绣工艺提高到一个崭新的水平。

湘绣主要以纯丝、硬缎、软缎、透明纱、尼纶等为原料，配以各色的丝线、绒线绣制而成。它以中国画为神，充分发挥针法的表现力，达到构图严谨，形象逼真，色彩鲜明，质感强烈，形神兼备的艺术境界。绣品中既有名贵的欣赏艺术品，也有美观适用的日用品。

民间湘绣艺人周淑纯在家

中绣花

Xiang Embroidery

Xiang embroidery is well known for its time-honored history, excellent craftsmanship and unique style. The earliest piece of Xiang embroidery was unearthed at the No 1 Tomb of Mawangdui, Changsha City of the Han Dynasty (206BC-AD220). The weaving technique was almost the same as the one used in modern times, which demonstrated that embroidery had already existed in the Han Dynasty. In its later development, Xiang Embroidery absorbed the characteristics of traditional Chinese paintings and formed its own unique characteristics. Xiang embroidery experienced its heyday at the end of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) and in the early Republic of China (early 20th century), even surpassing Su embroidery. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Xiang embroidery was further improved and developed to a new level.

Xiang embroidery uses pure silk, hard satin, soft satin and nylon as its material, which is connected with colorful silk threads. Absorbing the spirit of Chinese paintings, the embroidery reaches a high artistic level. Xiang embroidery crafts include valuable works of art, as well as materials for daily use.

蜀绣

蜀绣也称"川绣"，它是以四川成都为中心的刺绣产品的总称。蜀绣的生产具有悠久的历史。早在汉代（公元前206～公元220年），蜀绣之名就已誉满天下，汉朝政府还在成都专门设置了"锦官"进行管理。汉以后至五代十国时期（公元907～960年），四川相对安定的局面为蜀绣的发展创造了有利的条件，社会需求的不断增大，刺激了蜀绣业的飞速发展。到了宋代（公元960～1279年），蜀绣的发展达到鼎盛时期，绣品在工艺、产销量和精美程度上都独步天下。清朝（公元1644～1911年）中叶以后，蜀绣逐渐形成行业，当时各县官府均设"劝工局"以鼓励蜀绣生产。新中国成立后，在四川设立了成都蜀绣厂，使蜀绣工艺的发展进入了一个新阶段，技术上不断创新，品种日益增多。

蜀绣起源于川西民间，在长期的发展过程中，由于受地理环境、风俗习惯、文化艺术等方面的影响，逐渐形成了严谨细腻、光亮平整、构图疏朗、浑厚圆润、色彩明快的独特风格。蜀绣作品的选材丰富，有花草树木、飞禽走兽、山水鱼虫、人物肖像等。针法包括12大类共122种，常用的针法有晕针、铺针、滚针、截针、掺针、沙针、盖针等，讲究"针脚整齐，线片光亮，紧密柔和，车拧到家"。绣品的种类繁多，包括被面、枕套、衣、鞋和画屏等，既有巨幅条屏，又有袖珍小件，是观赏性与实用性兼备的精美艺术品。

Shu Embroidery

Also called Chuan embroidery, Shu embroidery is the general name for embroidery products in areas around Chengdu, Sichuan Province. Shu embroidery enjoys a long history. As early as the Han Dynasty, Shu embroidery was already famous. The central government even designated an office in this area for its administration. During the Five Dynasties and Ten States periods (907-960), a peaceful society and large demand provided advanced conditions for the rapid development of the Shu Embroidery industry. Shu embroidery experienced its peak development in the Song Dynasty (960-1279), ranking first in both production and excellence. In the mid-Qing Dynasty, the Shu embroidery industry was formed. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Shu embroidery factories were set up and the craft entered a new phase of development, using innovative techniques and a larger variety of forms.

Originating among the folk people in the west of Sichuan Province, Shu embroidery formed its own unique characteristics: smooth, bright, neat and influenced by the geographical environment, customs and cultures. The works incorporated flowers, leaves, animals, mountains, rivers and human figures as their themes. Altogether, there are 122 approaches in 12 categories for weaving. The craftsmanship of Shu embroidery involves a combination of fine arts, aesthetics and practical uses, such as the facings of quits, pillowcases, coats, shoots and screen covers.

粤绣

粤绣也称"广绣"。它是出产于广东省广州、潮州、汕头、中山、番禺、顺德一带刺绣品的总称。据史料记载，唐代的永贞元年（公元805年），广东南海县一位名叫卢媚娘的少女曾在一块一尺左右的绢面上绣出七卷《法华经》，粤绣从此名扬天下。宋元时期（公元10～14世纪），广州港的繁荣促进了粤绣工艺的飞速发展，粤绣品开始输出国外。明代（公元1368～1644年），广州的刺绣艺人已经能够娴熟地运用各色丝绒线刺绣，并创造性地使用动物的尾羽缠绒作线，使绣品更加自然生动。到清代的乾隆年间（公元1736～1796年），第一个粤绣行业组织"粤绣行"在广州成立，当时从事刺绣的艺人众多，粤绣在工艺和针法上都得以不断发展完善。1915年后，粤绣作品在巴拿马国际博览会等国际赛会上多次获得大奖。

粤绣在长期的发展过程中，受到各民族民间艺术的影响，在兼收并蓄、融会贯通的基础上，逐渐形成了自身独特的艺术风格。绣品主要取材于龙凤、花鸟等，图案构图饱满、均齐对称，色彩对比强烈、富丽堂皇。在针法上具有"针步均匀、纹理分明、处处见针、针针整齐"的特点。在种类上粤绣可分为绒绣、线绣、金银线绣三类，品种包括戏服、厅堂装饰、联帐、采眉、挂屏和各种日用绣品等。

Yue Embroidery

Also called Guang embroidery, Yue embroidery is a general name for embroidery products of the regions of Guangzhou, Shantou, Zhongshan, Fanyu and Shunde in Guangdong Province. According to historical records, in the first year of Yongyuan's reign (805) during the Tang Dynasty (618-907), a girl named Lu Meiniang embroidered the seventh volume of the Fahua Buddhist Scripture on a piece of thin silk 30 cm long. And so, Yue embroidery became famous around the country. The prosperous Guangzhou Port of the Song Dynasty promoted the development of Yue embroidery, which began to be exported at that time. During the Qing Dynasty, people animal hair as the raw material for Yue embroidery, which made the works more vivid. During Qianlong's reign (1736-1796) of the Qing, an industrial organization was established in Guangzhou. At that time, a large number of craftsmen devoted themselves to the craft, inciting further improvements to the weaving technique. Since 1915, the work of Yue embroidery garnered several awards at the Panama Expo.

Influenced by national folk art, Yue embroidery formed its own unique characteristics. The embroidered pictures are mainly of dragons and phoenixes, and flowers and birds, with neat designs and strong, contrasting colors. Floss, thread and gold-and-silk thread embroidery are used to produce costumes, decorations for halls and crafts for daily use.

苏绣

苏绣是以江苏苏州为中心的刺绣产品的总称。苏州刺绣至今已有2000余年的历史，早在三国时期（公元220～280年）就有了关于苏绣制作的记载。此后经过历代的不断发展完善，到明代（1368～1644年）时，苏绣已成为苏州地区一项普遍的群众性副业产品，形成了"家家养蚕，户户刺绣"的局面。清代（公元1644～1911年）的苏绣以"精细雅洁"而闻名，当时的苏州更有了"绣市"的誉称。清代中后期，苏绣在绣制技术上有了进一步发展，新出现了精美的"双面绣"，仅苏州一地专门经营刺绣的商家就有65家之多。民国时期（公元1912～1949年），由于常年战乱，苏绣业曾一度衰落。新中国成立后，苏绣得到进一步的恢复和发展。1950年后，国家专门设立了苏绣研究所，并开办刺绣训练班。苏绣的针法由原来的18种发展到今天的40余种。

苏绣具有图案秀丽、构思巧妙、绣工细致、针法活泼、色彩清雅的独特风格，地方特色浓郁。绣技具有"平、齐、细、密、和、光、顺、匀"的特点。"平"指绣面平展；"齐"指图案边缘齐整；"细"指用针细巧，绣线精细；"密"指线条排列紧凑，不露针迹；"和"指设色适宜；"光"指光彩夺目，色泽鲜明；"顺"指丝理圆转自如；"匀"指线条精细均匀，疏密一致。在种类上，苏绣作品主要可分为零剪、戏衣、挂屏三大类，装饰性与实用性兼备。其中以"双面绣"作品最为精美。

Su Embroidery

With a history of more than 3,000 years, Su embroidery is the general name for embroidery products in areas around Suzhou, Jiangsu Province. The craft, which dates back to the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280), became a sideline of people in the Suzhou area during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). Well known for its smoothness and delicateness, Su embroidery won Suzhou the title City of Embroidery in the Qing Dynasty. In the mid and late Qing, Su embroidery experienced further developments involving works of double-sided embroidering. There were 65 embroidery stores in Suzhou City. During the Republic of China period (1912-1949), the Su embroidery industry was in decline due to frequent wars and it was restored and regenerated after the founding of new China. In 1950, the central government set up research centers for Su embroidery and launched training courses for the study of embroidery. Weaving methods have climbed from 18 to the present 40.

Su embroidery features a strong, folk flavor and its weaving techniques are characterized by the following: the product surface must be flat, the rim must be neat, the needle must be thin, the lines must be dense, the color must be harmonious and bright and the picture must be even. Su embroidery products fall into three major categories: costumes, decorations for halls and crafts for daily use, which integrate decorative and practical values. Double-sided embroidery is an excellent representative of Su embroidery.