Prose Synopsis Synopsis(1) Prose recording historical events emerged along with thedevelopment of language during the Yin and Shang dynasties. In the ZhouDynasty, official historians recorded many historical facts about variouskingdoms in simple and concise language, for example in Spring andAutumn Annals. Later, the historical recordings were developed intohistorical literature, which recounted the realities of the period indescriptive language, including Master Zuo'S Spring and Autumn Annals,Discourse of the States and intrigues of the Warring States. Master Zuo' sSpring and Autumn Annals is said to be written by Zuo Qiuming, an officialhistorian of the Lu Kingdom at the end of Spring and Autumn Period.Master Zuo's Spring and Autumn Annals has 180,000 words and recordedthe political, military and diplomatic activities and speeches, as well asdivinatory practices, of various kingdoms during the 240 years of theSpring and Autumn Period. The narration in this book is dramatic and theplots compact, with the description of wars being especially effective.The language in intrigues of the Warring States is Succinct and figurative. Discourse of the States is a history of individual kingdoms. It recordedhistorical facts of the Zhou Dynasty and its subject kingdoms between1000 BC to 400 BC. There are more speeches than actual events in thisbook, which are mostly by some farsighted and liberal noblemen of thetime. The author of intrigues of the Warring States is unknown. The editionextant today was compiled by Liu Xiang of the Western Han Dynasty. It isalso the history of individual kingdoms, documenting the events ofWestern and Eastern Zhou dynasties and their subject kingdoms, includingQin, Qi, Chu, and Zhao. The contents is made up of mostly the proposalsand activities of counselors. intrigues of the Warring States isaccomplished in narration and uses many metaphors. The characterizationin this book is very accomplished. Pre-Qin historical prose established the foundation for Chinesehistorical literature and exerted great influence on historians and writersof classical literature. It was a time of great social changes at the end of the Spring andAutumn Period and the beginning of the Warring States Period. Manyschools of thought contended with each other and their works furtherpromoted the development of rational prose. Major schools of thoughtat the time included the Confucian School, the Mohist School, the TaoistSchool, the Legalist School, among many others. And their representativeworks are respectively, Analects and Mencius, Mozi Zhuangzi andHanfeiZi. Analects and Mencius expounded on the ideas of "humaneness" of the Confucian School. Analects recorded the speeches and activities of Kong Qiu and his disciples. The language is sparse and simple, with the book written in the form ofquestion and answer. Mencius recorded the speeches of Meng Ke, who being good at debate, means the language is brisk and convincing. Morzi represents the Mohist School's advocacy of "loving all equally" The writing is simple but following a strict logic. "Loving All Equally" and"Against Aggression" are representative pieces in this book. Zhuangzi is the key work of the Taoist School, which advanced onZhuang Zhou's claim of "governing by doing nothing that against nature."The writing in this book holds more appeal than other prose of that time,with a high level of strange imagination, keen observation and the adoptionof folk fables and metaphors. Articles in Zhuangzi have a strong literaryflavor and deep philosophical meaning. Hanfeizi represents the Legalist School's assertion of "act accordingto circumstances." Prose in this book is characterized by compactstructure and profound reasoning. Xunzi outlines Xun Kuang's doctrine, in 32 long articles. The featuresof Xun Kuang's prose can be Summarized as: clear arguments, goodarrangement, complete and concise sentences, and extensive vocabulary. Master Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals was created jointly byfollowers of Lu Buwei, prime minister of the Qin Kingdom. It includes 26articles in three parts, covering a mixture of various schools' doctrines.The book contains a large number of documents and anecdotes of the pre-Qin period. It distinguished itself by its systematic and effective wayof reasoning. Like much other prose then, it also adopted many fablesand metaphors, making it vivid and figurative. Pre-Qin prose exerted great influence, in terms of both content andform on the development of prose in later ages. At the beginning of the Han Dynasty, political prose made a lot ofadvances. Jia Yi (200-168 BC) was a great man of letters in the earlystages of the Western Han Dynasty. His "On the Faults of Qin" madeconclusions on the reason for the demise of the Qin, drew lessons fromthe peasant uprising of the late Qin and developed the idea of "relyingon the people," which became prevalent in the pre-Qin period. Jia Yi'sprose uses many metaphors and is written in figurative language. Besides Jia Yi, many writers of the early Han Dynasty also wrote proseeither commenting on the Qin Dynasty's success and failure or puttingfotward their own assertions regarding the facts, with Chao Cuo and ZouYangcheng's writings being the most exemplary. Chao Cuo's articles "Onthe importance of Developing Agriculture in the Frontier" and "On theimportance of Grain Production," advocated the storage of ample foodfor the defense of the border. During Emperor Wu's reign in the Western Han Dynasty, he advocated"banning all ideas except Confucianism." But the feudal dynasty neededto give an explanation for uniting all thinking under Confucianism basedon the end development of ancient culture. Sima Qian's Records of theHistorian emerged out of the necessary historical conditions, which furtherdeveloped pre-Qin prose. Under the influence of Records of the Historian,much historical prose was created in the Eastern Han Dynasty, bestrepresented by Ban Gu's Chronicles of the Han Dynasty. During the Han Dynasty a new style, fu, emerged. The name fuoriginated from the article "Fu Pian" written by Xun Qing of the ZhaoKingdom in the Warring States Period. Later, fu was designated a formalstyle. Fu is very particular in its literary grace and cadence, and possessesqualities of both poetry and prose. Famous fu of the Han Dynasty included:Jia Yi's "Lament for Qu Yuan" and "Ode to the Roc," and Sima Xiangru's(179-118 BC) "Master Void" and "Shanglin," from the early Western HanDynasty; Yang Xiong's (53-18BC) "On Sweet Spring," "On the PlumeHunt," "Ode to Changyang" and "Ode to Hedong," and Ban Gu's "Odeto the Two Capitals," from the late Western Han Dynasty; and ZhangHeng's (AD 78-139) "Ode to Two Capitals" written in the Eastern HanDynasty. During the period of the Wei,Jin and Northern and Southern dynastiespian wen (rhyming prose characterized by parallelism and ornateness)prevailed and prose declined. But Li Daoyuan's Commentary on theWaterways Classics and Yang Xuanzhi's Temples and Monasteries inLuoyang, both scholarly works, still contained beautiful, unaffectednarration, expression and landscape description. Han Yu of the Tang Dynasty vigorously opposed the affected pianwen and advocated classical prose. Many writers followed Han's call andbegan to create classical style prose. Later Han Yu's call for classical prosecreation received further support from Liu Zongyuan and thus gainedeven wider influence. For a time, classical prose dominated literarycreativity, in what came to be called the Revival of Classical Prose inChinese literary history. The success of the Revival of Classical Prose ledby Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan established a new style of writing whichdiscarded the conventional pattern of pian wen and gave full play to freeexpression, hence greatly promoting prose's functions of expression,narration, commentary and satire.The Classical Revival Movement declined after the mid-Tang Dynasty,but was advocated again by Ouyang Xiu in the Song Dynasty and followedby Wang Anshi, Zeng Gong, Su Shi, Su Xun and Su Zhe, who all madegreat literary achievements under the influence of Classicism. The sixwriters together with Han Yu and Liu Zouyuan later came to be known asthe "Eight Great Men of Letters of the Tang And Song Dynasties." Sima Guang, a historical writer of the Northern Song Dynasty,compiled the great work Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government,which is of both great historical and literarry value. Under the influence of works created in the Northern Song Dynasty, writers of the Southern Song Dynasty produced a number of excellent political prose writings, which explicitly put forward the authors' political views. Representative writers include Hu Quan, Chen Liang and Ye Shi. The emergence of large numbers of essays written in the form of sketches, such as Hong Mai's MiscellaneousNotes from the Tolerant Study and Wang Mingqing's Hui Zhu Lu, are also attributed to the influence of the Revival of Classical Prose.Zhu Xi (1130-1200) was a famous writer of ancient prose at the time, whose works areknown for their rationalism. Song Lian (131O-1381) was a founding father of the Ming Dynasty.Some of his biographies possess certain realist significance, including"A Prodigy of Shaanxi," "The Biography of Wang Mian" and "TheBiography of Li Yi." After the mid-Ming Dynasty seven scholars headedby Li Mengyang and He Jingming initiated the Classical Revival Movement,which was meant to free literary creation from the limitations of Cheng Yiand Zhu Xi's idealistic philosophy and the "eight-part essay" (a literarycomposition prescribed for the imperial civil service examinations, knownfor its rigidity of form and poverty of ideas). The Classical RevivalMovement called for imitating pre-Qin prose. Although it played animportant role in sweeping aside the literary style of the "eight-part essay,"the movement, to some degree, exceeded its proper boundaries. Later,Li Panlong, Wang Shizhen and five other scholars led another ClassicalRevival Movement, which again repeated the mistakes made by theprevious one. The Tang and Song School headed by Gui Youguang first stood up tooppose the Classical Revival Movement, and later it was joined by theGong'an School, in criticizing those scholars who imitated classical writingsblindly. Representative figures of the Gong'an School are Yuan Zongdao, YuanHongdao and Yuan Zhongdao. Yuan Hongdao (1568-1610) is the most famous of the three. The Gong'an School believed that different times have differentliterature, and objected to the ways the Classical Revival Movement blindly elevated ancient literature and debased current literature. Prose created by theGong'an School broke the yoke of conventional patterns and developed its own individuality. The language in their prose is simple and plain. Existing simultaneously with the Gong'an Schoolwas also the Jingling School, represented by Zhong Xing and Tan Yuanchun. Like the Gong'an School, the Jingling School also laid claim to expressing the natural character and intelligence of humanity. Under the influence of the Gong'an School and the Jingling School, alarge number of short essays were created in the late Ming Dynasty,which developed traditional prose. Zhang Dai (1597- ?) was a famouswriter of short essay of that time. His essays cover a wide range of subjects,such as landscape, folk customs and practices, drama, crafts, and evenCurios and toys. The language in Zhang Dai's prose is fresh, lively andfigurative, as exemplified by "Mid July at West Lake" and "Watching Snowin the Huxin Pavilion."Hou Fangyu (1618-1654) was a writer of the late Ming and the earlyQing Dynasty. His prose is known for its artistry, as seen in "The Story ofLi Ji," "Actor Ma" and "The Biography of Ren Yuansui." Famous prose writers in the early Qing Dynasty include Wang Youdingand Wei xi. Wang Youding (1599-c.1661 ) was good at writing legendaryprose, such as "The Biography of Li Yizu" and "Records of Tang Pipa."Wei Xi (1624-168o) excelled at writing biography, with his most famouswork being "Big iron Cone." The Tongcheng School is the most distinguished of the mid-Qingdynasty schools. Its representative writers include Fang Bao, Liu Dakuiand Yao Nai, who are all natives of Tongcheng County in Anhui Province.Fang Bao (1668-1749) carried on the tradition of Gui Youguang's worksand made yi fa (yi refers to the central ideas of an article; fa, to literaryforms and artistry) the basic theory of the Tongcheng School's writings.Works created by the Tongcheng School stressed the elucidation of thearticle's purpose and didn't encourage loading the writings with fancyphrases, therefore their writings are concise and natural but lackanimation. Major works of the Tongcheng School include Fang Bao's"prison Notes" and "An incident from the Life of Zuo Zhongyi Esquire,"and Yao Nai's "Ascent to Mount Tai." In contrast to the Tongcheng School was the Fu She Group, whichadvocated pian wen. Wang Zhong (1744-1794) was the most famous writerof the Fu She Group. Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao were representative figures of thelate Qing Dynasty, who called for reforming literature. They disregardedtraditional literary forms and expressed their views frankly in their writings.Their essays were actually effective weapons in political struggles. LiangQichao's new style of prose attacked traditional classical prose even morefiercely, which paved the way for the liberation of literary style and thebirth of vernacular writings in the May 4th Movement. His "A Discourseon Youthful China" belongs to this category. Along with criticism of feudal and classical-style literature, emergednew forms of literature including argumentation, which is the fountainheadof modern prose. In the early stages of modern literature, the most influential writersof argumentation included Chen Duxiu, Li Dazhao, Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren,Qian Xuantong and Liu Bannong, of whom Lu Xun made the greatestachievements. Their works were written in the form of jottings andincluded a myriad of subject matters. But the focus of their writings wasideological and literary revolution. Early argumentation prose played an important role in the anti-feudalist struggles. its aim was concrete and close to life; its form free and flexible; and its language could either be powerful and heroic or humorous and satirical. Following argumentation came forth narrative prose and the sketches, as modernprose entered a stage of vibrant development. Prose created during this period had different forms and literary styles. Its forms included narration, commentary and expression. And its literary styles were characterized by Lu Xun's dispassionate presentation, Zhou Zuoren'smildness, Zhu Ziqing and Bingxin's freshness and elegance, Guo Moruoand Yu Dafu's boldness and generosity, Ye Shengtao and Xu Dishan'ssimplicity and honesty, and Xu Zhimo's ornate and flowery quality. Zhou Zuoren was the pathbreaker in literary sketches. Well-knownworks include "Edible Wild Herbs from My Hometown," "The Boat witha Black Sail," "Water Chestnut" and "The Dream of Summer." ZhouZuoren's works were characterized by an easy pace that was yet full ofpassion towards life. His argumentation essays gained a very importantstatus in the literary world at the time. Lin Yutang's works are of a similarartistic style. His most famous work is Jianfu ji- A Collection of Lin Yutang's Prose, which satirized the Current injustices, criticized the traditionalphilosophy of "the middle road" and stressed the struggles with the oldworld. Yu Pingbo's Miscellany and Yanzhicao,both collections of prose,also belong to this category. Though elegant, Yu's works are also a touchobscure. Both Guo Moruo and Yu Dafu's works are free and easy to read. GuoMoruo's collection of prose poetry Six Sketches is written in beautifuland exquisite language carrying depth of meaning. Yu Dafu was good atwriting travelogues, as exemplified by "Footprints Everywhere" and "ASpring Day at Diaoyutai." "A Spring Day at Diaoyutai" describes thebeautiful landscape around the Fuchunjiang River, with the authorexpressing his indignation toward the current situation throughrecollecting past events. He Qifang's lyrical prose, which brought him great fame during the1930s, was called "poetic prose." As a modern poet, he incorporatedmodern literary techniques into prose writing in order to facilitate theexpression of feelings. His major work is "Painted Dreams." As in hispoetry, the language in his prose is also elaborate and exquisite. Li Guangtian (1906-1968) was the representative writer of narrativeprose, especially prose writing about people. His narrative prose containsno plot but only snippets of life and lyrical expressions. Synopsis (2) After the outbreak of the anti-Japanese War, especially after the NewFourth Army Incident (1941 ), essays with a strong militancy were createdin great numbers. Guo Moruo's "ode to the Nine Muses-A New Poem"and "Refuting Reactionary Art" became important documents in theideological and cultural battlefront in Kuomintang-dominated areas. WenYiduo's "The Last Speech" reflected a dauntless democratic soldier'scourage. Feng Xuefeng's essays particularly focused on the analysis ofpeople's psychology. The works of Nie Gannu (1900-1986) used interesting ancient stories to criticize the current reality and he also madeother useful probes into art. Other writers like Feng Zikai (1898-1975)and Lin Mohan (1909- ) also wrote many essays. Prose that combined narration and lyrical expression made greatachievements in Kuomintang-dominated areas. Mao Dun's "In Praise ofthe White Poplar" and "On Scenery" and Ba Jin's "Lamp" and "Dragon"are excellent Pieces. Shen Congwen's "Sketches of Western Hunan"beautifully narrates natural and human conditions. In the early stages after new China was founded, professional andamateur writers from all walks of life created a vast amount of prosereflecting the new era, new people, new happenings and new life .These works were in many artistic styles and touched on wide aspects of life.For example, Ba Jin's works are full of great passion; Bing Xin and Jin Yi'swritings are gentle and restrained; Liu Baiyu's works are intense andvehement; while Hua Shan's pieces are humorous. Though different instyle, these writers all sang the praises of a new life with sincere andhonest feeling. Prose created during this period concentrated on two major Subjects:socialist economic construction and the Korean War .Works reflectingthe war include: Liu Baiyu's "Korea Makes Progress in the War," Jin Yi's"My Motherland," Han Zi's "Museum of Peace" and Ba Jin's "Living AmongHeroes." Works reflecting socialist economic construction include: LiuQing's "In Huangpu Village in 1955," Qin Zhaoyang's "Wang Yonghaui,"Sha Ting's "Lu Jiaxiu,"Jin Yi's "Going To Foziling," Hua Shan's "The Age ofFairy Tales," Li Ruobing's "In the Qaidam Basin," Zang Kejia's "ChairmanMao Zedong Smiles at the Yellow River," and Yang Shuo's The. PetroleumCity." Prose of this period was also marked by diversified forms. Travelogues, sketches, jottings and essays all gave full play to their function in new times and were welcomed extensively by readers. Travelogues include: He JingZhi's "Return to Yan'an- Embrace of the Mother," Fang Ji's "Song and Flute ,"Yang Shuo's "Red Leaves in the Fragrant Hills," Bi Ye's "Scenery of Tianshan Mountain," Ye Shengtao's "Vsit to Three Lakes,"Mao Dun's "Essays on Stockholm," and Jun Qing's "Letters from a Trip toEurope." Jottings include Han Zi's "Newborn Calf" and He Wei's "TwoSisters." Essays include Mao Dun's "Ugly Features of the Bandits," Ba Ren's "KuangZhong's Pen," and Ma Tieding's "Tittle-Tattle on Thought." Although the creation of prose made considerable advances during this period,compared with other types of literature, prose, and especially the essay, was not given due attention. Due to the influence of excessive politics, writers werehesitant to present the real conflicts and struggles in their work, which was also reflected In prose creation. Since 1957, prose creation has received extensive attention from all circles. Works, whether In terms of quantity or in quality, have far surpassed those of the previous period. Famous writers and their significant works include: Ye Shengtao's "Two Caves in Jinhua," which was another travelogue following "Visit to Three Lakes;" Bing Xin's "Ode to the Cherry Blossom" and Ba Jin's "Photos Brought Back fromKamakura," both paeans to international solidarity; Wu Boxiao's "Song"and "A Spinning Wheel," recollections of the hardships, in Yan'an; FangJi's "Waving Hands" records Chairman Mao's composure at a time ofhistorical crisis; Tao Zhu's "The Style of the Pine Tree" expresses his ownsentiment through the praises of pine trees; Bi Ye's "Travel among Snowand Clouds" and "Mount Wudang" depict beautiful landscapes; ChenCanyun's "On the Banks of the Zhujiang River" and "Beautiful Shatian"describe the changes in people's lives along the Zhujiang River; Yu Min's"Scenery of the West Lake" and Li Jianwu's "Ascending Mount Tai in theRain" create artistic and poetic imagery in their works ;Jian Bozan's "VsitingCultural Ruins in inner Mongolia" describes scenic spots from theperspective of an historian; Shen Congwen's "Trip to Hunan - A NewComposition" describes the new life in his hometown; and Han Shaohua's"Overture" and Xu Kailei's "Legend of a Sculptor" excel at portrayingpeople. Other writers' works such as Han Zi's "Huangshan Mountains,"Yan Zhen's "The Peony Garden," Feng Mu's "Along the Torrents of theLancang River," Zong Pu's "About West Lake," Jun Qing's "On AutumnScenery" and Li Ruobing's "Heavy Snow on Qilian Mountain" are allmasterpieces. Chinese prose creation entered a time of maturation during thisperiod. Old writers such as Bing Xin, Ba Jin and Ye Shengtao had gaineda high degree of professionalism in their artistic skills. Young and middle-aged writers represented by Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu had alsoformed their own artistic styles. Yang Shuo's prose is fresh, gentle andbeautiful; Liu Baiyu's works are effusive and passionate; while Qin Mu'swritings perfectly combine knowledge and interest. Other prose writersalso had their own distinctive styles - for example, Bi Ye's works weremoving, Chen Canyun's writing light and graceful, Deng Tuo's worksincisive and profound, Wu Boxiao's concise and sincere, Cao Jinghua'sprose simple and easy, Jun Qing's works deep and far-sighted, Li Ruobing's earnest and heroic, Tao Zhu's writing frank, Han Zi's gentle, while Zong Pu's works were elegant each showed his or her own solid craft. During the Cultural Revolution Culture was greatly impaired. Thecreation of prose also ceased for the time being. After the Cultural Revolution, people's feelings, which had been suppressed for ten years, burst forth. In the field of prose creation a large number of articles of lament arose. Works expressing people's yearning for Mao Zedong, Zhu De, Zhou Enlaiand others from the older generation of revolutionaries include: He Wei's"The Lin Jiang Building," Mao Anqing and Shao Hua's "Beautiful RedAzaleas in Shaoshan Mountain," Liu Baiyu's "Towering Taihang Mountain,"Yuan Ying's "Fly," Zhang Chang's "Reminiscence on the Water-SprinklingFestival," Han Zi's "Across the Yangtze River," Xue Ming's "A Report tothe Party and the People," and Tao Siliang's "A Finally Sent-out Letter."Works commemorating persecuted writers, artists, scientists and otheroutstanding figures include: Ding Ning's "A Poet's Soul, "lamenting YangShuo; Huang Zongying's "Star," for Shangguan Yunzhu;Jin Shan's "NeverForget the Blood Debt," remembering dramatist Sun Weishi; Ding Yilan's"Recalling Deng Tuo"; Huang Mei's "Recalling He Qifang"; Ba Jin's"Recalling Xiao Shan," lamenting his beloved wife; and Lou Shiyi's"Recalling Fu Lei," and "Recalling Liu Qing." The figures in those works were familiar to and respected by people,but their deeds described had been rarely known to readers. Thesentiments expressed in the works are not only moving but also inspiring. Since China began to practice reform and opening up, the newexuberance of social life was first reflected in prose. Prose recollectingthe writer's own experiences and feelings or revealing a philosophy oflife also gained great momentum, such as: Ding Ling's "Life in Cowshed,"describing her and her husband's life in cowshed; Yan Zhen's "Daffodil,"recollecting a woman professor's noble character; Zhang Kangkang's"Fragmentary Thought on the Underground Forest," praising the infiniteforces contained among the people; and Guan Hua's "Bamboo"and DingNing's "Fairy Bloom," expressing the authors' spirit and yearnings throughpraising flowers and trees. Travelogues also flourished during this period. They mainly continuedthe traditional expressive techniques of using scenery to express theauthor's feelings. Among these, those taking exotic scenery andlandscapes as the subject are original in style- for example, Ding Ling's"America as I See it," Xiao Qian's "A Trip to America," Wang Meng's"Jottings from a Trip to Germany and America," Mu Qing's "Under theLeaning Tower," Liu Baiyu's "Beautiful Seine," and Wei Junyi's"Homesickness"- all were written with great craftsmanship. = Ancient Chinese Architecture Chinese architecture refers to a style of architecture that has taken shape in Asia over the years. Over the centuries, the structural principles of Chinese architecture have remained largely unchanged, the main changes being on the decorative details. Since the Tang Dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the architectural styles of Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Vietnam. Ancient Chinese architecture enjoys a long history and great achievements, and created many architectural miracles such as the Great Wall. In the process of its development, superior architectural techniques and artistic design were combined to make unique Chinese architecture be one of the three greatest architectural systems. An ancient civilized nation and a great country on the East Asian continent, China possesses a vast territory covering 9.6 million sq. km. and a population accounting for over one-fifth of the world's total, 56nationalities and a recorded history of 3,OOO years, during which it has created a unique, outstanding traditional Chinese Culture. China's architectural art is a particularly beautiful branch in the tree of Chinese civilization. Generally speaking, there were about seven main independent architectural systems in the ancient world, some of which had long been interrupted, or had not been widely circulated. Therefore their achievements and influence were relatively limited, such as ancient Egyptian, West Asian, Indian and American structures. Only Chinese, European and Islamic structures are considered to be the world's three major architectural systems. The Chinese and European structures continued over the longest period of time and spread over the widest area and therefore they gained more brilliant achievements. Fengshui, a special Chinese tradition in architecture, usually links the whole process from site selection, designing, construction and interior and exterior decorating in ancient times. Feng means wind and shui is water. Fengshui combines the trinity of the Heaven, the Earth and humans, and seeks harmony between selected site, orienting, natural doctrine and human fate. It repulses human destruction of nature and stresses cohabitation with the environment, which is regarded as perfect and occult. In China, a fengshui practitioner, or a diviner, usually applies theories as Yingyang, Sixiang, Wuxing and Bagua, based on the principle of the Heaven and the Earth in harmony, to select an optimum place for burial site or accommodation. Qi, deemed as the basic element of the physical world in ancient Chinese philosophy, is the essence of fengshui. The art of fengshui advocates there is a certain field, sort of like magnetic field, termed as qi field. An auspicious qi field is what fengshui practitioners seek while an evil one is what they strive to avoid. There are five elements - long (dragon), xue (cave), sha (sand), shui (water) and xiang (orientation). They are used to avoid evil qi and gain auspicious qi. In order to keep qi of the Heaven and the Earth in harmony in the construction of a new structure, earth vein should not be spoiled. The best orientation is a building with its face facing a river or a lake in the south and back against a hill in the north. Most ancient cities in China were built under guidance of fengshui, which was the main principle used to select locations based on their environmental surroundings. Fengshui helps to plan placement of structures of significance and confirm the location of city central axis. Usually the central axis of a city, or certain other architectural complex, ought to face certain peak of mountains nearby to make the city magnificent and solemn. For example, the Imperial Palace in Beijing was placed on the very center of the city, and its central axis points at Jingshan Mountain which was called Guard Mountain of the Palace. Fengshui practitioners also emphasize pagodas and their site location since pagodas are believed capable of protecting residents around them. Although there are still many people who believe it, many people now doubt this theory. The Great Wall-Monument to the Chinese Nation The human race is rich in creative power but has never been content with its lot, with material limitation, but instead has tried hard to transcend it spiritually. A batch of ancient artistic creations such as oral literature, dances, music, drawing and sculptures, were admirable evidence of this in the distant past. Architectural art, considered to be the earliest art of mankind, naturally also found expression. China's Great Wall is a famous example that transcends ideology. Far back to the Western Zhou Dynasty in the 9th century BC, people began to build beacon towers along the borderline. When the enemy came, people used fires on the towers to provide early warning. During the Spring and Autumn Warring States Period, mutually defensive beacon towers were also built along the national boundaries between various countries. In the middle of the 7th century BC, in order to link up various isolated beacon towers bordering the state of Qin, Chu State was the first to set up city walls, becoming the earliest part of the Great Wall. Later, similar walls were built one after another by various states. After Qinshihuang unified China, he demolished the walls between the various states, leaving behind only those of Yan, Zhao and Qin and linked them together, so as to resist the attack by northern nomadic people. This section of the Great Wall goes west from Lintao and east to Liaodong. The Han Dynasty extended the Great Wall toward the west and setup the Yumenguan Pass and the Yangguan Pass in Gansu's Dunhuang. Various post-Han dynasties all maintained the Great Wall, with the Ming Dynasty seeing the largest scale of maintenance work, by completing the greatest human project stretching more than 11,3OO li (O.5 km =one li) across north China east to Liaodong and west to Gansu's Jiayuguan Pass. The Great Wall has inner and outer layers, and has more than 2Olayers in some sections. When all the city walls are put together, the Great Wall built during the 2,OOO years throughout all dynasties totals 1OO,OOO li, long enough to circle the globe. Historically, the Great Wall had played a great role, guarding against the inroads of the northern nomadic people and guaranteeing the tranquillity of the central plain, ensuring the unimpeded traffic of the Silk Road for economic and cultural exchanges between Chinese and Western countries, and promoting peace, trade and exchanges among various nationalities at frontier points. Today, the practical functions of the Great Wall as defense work no longer exist, but its beauty has long remained up to this date, becoming the object of beauty for sightseeing. The city walls of the Great Wall extends mostly along the undulating mountain ridges, with close interdependence of precipitous topography-mountains and walls in the Outer side of the mountain ridges often made use of to reinforce the structure. The mystical picture resulting from the combination of points, lines and areas formed by the majestic passes, rotating city walls, strong towers, turrets, enemy fortresses and solitary and unique beacon towers have all become part of the rhythm of beauty. Nature, which originally is completely unrestrained and lacking in feeling, once it become part of people's judgment, becomes a thing closely related with their feelings. Esthetic critics say that the Great Wall "looks like a momentous running hand written in one stroke on the vast land of north China with a huge mystical brush". The enemy tower represents the modulation of the running hand, and the impregnable pass the turning-point of the running hand, forming a complete artistic work. The beauty of the Great Wall comes from its grandeur, a kind of noble beauty characterized by magnificence, firmness, grandeur and boldness. It is an expression of the pioneering spirit of the Chinese who pursue peace and dare to make progress, conveying deep national sentiment. Therefore, the Great Wall is not only beautiful, but is also a symbol of the character of the Chinese nation. It is clear that the nature of architectural art not only demonstrates the form of a certain beauty, it also demands playing up a certain kind of strong feeling, temperament and interest, countenance and appeal and finally exhibiting a tendency related to a certain thought and concept, such as the outlook of nature, ethics and religion as well as aesthetic interest, so as to influence and stir people's hearts. If stressing esthetic beauty that only pleases the eye is shallow delight, then stressing the artistic beauty that gladdens the heart is all the more a pursuit of artistic conception, and richer and deeper heart-stirring sincerity. Therefore, Auguste Rodin said, "our France as a whole is contained in Our large church, just as the whole of Greece is contained in the Batenong Temple." Contemporary Western artistic historian Jian Sen also said, "When we recall past great civilizations, we have a habit of using visible and commemorative buildings as a unique symbol of each civilization." Victor Hugo defined a building as a monument to human ideology: "Like all rules of religion, people's thoughts have their own monument. No important human thought is not inscribed on rocks by the architectural art." He also said that architecture is an historical record of rock." Then we can say the Great Wall is the monument to the Chinese nation. Based on the broad and profound Chinese Culture, China's architecture has gained unique and great achievements, giving a profound expression to a culture which is the pride of the Chinese people. = Ancient Chinese Music ( Chinese Classical Music) & Dance Music of China appears to date back to the dawn of Chinese civilization, and documents and artifacts provide evidence of a well-developed musical culture as early as the Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC - 256 BC). According to Mencius, a ruler had asked Mencius whether it was moral if he preferred pop songs to the classics. The answer was that the only thing matters being whether or not he loved his subjects. The Imperial Music Bureau, first established in the Qin Dynasty (221-207 BC), was greatly expanded under the Emperor Han Wu Di (140-87 BC) and charged with supervising court music and military music and determining what folk music would be officially recognized. In subsequent dynasties, the development of Chinese music was strongly influenced by foreign music, especially that of Central Asia. = Chinese Ancient Relics Sedan or Sedanchair (Jiaozi) The sedan or sedanchair (jiaozi), a traditional vehicle of transportation carried by bearers, was called at the beginning jianyu (shoulder carriage), being a carriage that travelled on human shoulders. Jiaozi is its comparatively modern name. In old times, sedans fell into two major categories: the guanjiao (official sedan) and the minjiao (private sedan). Those of the former type were used by the royal family and government officials, and they varied in elaborateness according to the status of the person carried inside, following strict rules laid down for different levels of the hierarchy. Even for the emperor himself, he was to sit in palanquins or sedanchairs of different grades on different occasions: the ceremonial palanquin to go to a formal court of audience, the sedanchair when he made rounds of inspection inside the Forbidden City, the light sedan for hunts and excursions outside the capital, and finally the casual litter, a spare sedan accompanying him on his trips, into which he might want to change at any moment. For his everyday use in the palace, it was usually the casual litter. Then the furnishings also differed with the seasons: the warm sedan for winter and the cool type for summer. The two sedanchairs now on display in the Hall of Complete Harmony (Zhonghedian) of the Forbidden City are the casual litters used by the emperor for everyday purposes. Sedanchairs for the ministers and lower officials varied in grandeur with their ranks. In all cases, an official sedan out in the street was heralded by the beating of gongs to clear the way and surrounded by a number of attendants. Common people meeting such a procession must keep quiet and step aside. The higher the official, the greater the number of followers and sedan bearers. The latter might vary from two for a petty official to eight for a very eminent personage. The emperor himself might have as many as sixteen carriers. Private sedans were of simple make, yet they were owned only by the landed gentry or urban rich. Built of wood or bamboo, they could be carried either on flat roads or along mountain paths. Some of the self-pampered potbellies inside, like the officials, were also accompanied by bodyguards walking by the side of the sedans. There was yet another type of sedans for hire to the common people for use on weddings. They were called huajiao (flowery sedan) or xijiao (happiness sedan). The deluxe model of this type was covered by bright-coloured silks embroidered with gaudy designs of good luck and even decorated with sparkling gems. The run-of-the-mill model was also bedecked with colourful silk ribbons. In feudal times a bride was not to be seen by outsiders, so there was an elaborate "double-sedan" with a small one inside the outer one so that the bride could get into (or out of) the inner sedan indoors and then be carried into the outer sedan without exposing herself to public view. Wedding sedanchairs continued to be in vogue for some time in certain regions after the founding of New China in 1949. Nowadays young people prefer the motorized sedan for their weddings, and the sedanchair has been relegated to the realm of history. Wooden fish Wooden fish is a percussion instrument made of a hollow wooden block originally used by Buddhist priest to beat rhythm when chanting scriptures. These are two kinds of wooden fish: one is round in shape with scales carved on it. It is said that fishes don't close their eyes when sleeping to remind the chanting monks to be concentrated. The other is rectangle in shape, suspending in front of the dinning hall of a Buddhist temple. When having breakfast and lunch, the monks beat it to produce rhythm which the monks call "Bang". As for the origin of wooden fish, there is an interesting legend as follows: Many years ago, a Chinese Buddhist went to India to acquire scriptures. One day, on his way to India, he found himself to be blocked by a flooding wide river. There appeared neither bridge nor boat. At this moment, a big fish swam up and back him across the river. In the middle of the river, the fish said to the Buddhist, 'Because I committed a crime, I have been sentenced to live in this river for many years. Now I am told that you spare no efforts to go to India for scriptures, so I come here to help you, just to atone for my crime. A good deed I do! If you meet Sakyamuni (the founder of Buddhism), please ask Him when I can become Bodhisattva'. Being anxious to cross the river, the Buddhist accepted the fish's demand without hesitation. After having spent 17 years in India, the Buddhist went back to China, taking the scriptures he got. On the way back to China, he came near the former river, which was flooding furiously again. While he was worrying, the big fish appeared and gave him a hand again. In the middle of the water, it asked the Buddhist, 'You have been in India for many years. Did you ask Sakyamuni when I can become Bodhisattva?' The Buddhist replied, "Ah, Sorry! I forget'. On hearing this, the fish got angry. It vibrated itself only to get the Buddhist and his scripture books slide into water. A fisherman who happened to pass nearly helped him out of water, unfortunately, the scripture books were scattered by the flood. The Buddhist came home, full of anger. He said to himself. 'It is the fish who makes my 17 years of efforts wasted.' Then he had a statue of fish head carved with wood, that is, wooden fish. When he recalled his adversity, he beat the wooden fish with a wooden hammer. To his surprise, each time he beat the wooden fish, the fish opened its mouth and vomited a character. He became so happy that if he had time, he always beat the wooden fish. A few years passing by, he got back what he had lost in water from the wooden fish's mouth. = Chinese Ethnic Group China is a large country noted for its dense population and vast territory. There are 55 minority ethnic groups in addition to the Han who represent 92% of the population. The defining elements of an ethnic group are language, homeland, and social values. 53 minority ethnic groups use spoken languages of their own; 23 minority ethnic groups have their own written languages. Most of the 7 percent of the minority ethnic groups live in the vast areas of the West, Southwest and Northwest. The largest is the 12 million-strong Zhuang in southwestern China. Although minority ethnic groups account for about 7% of the population, they are distributed over some 50% of Chinese territory, mostly in the border regions. Equality, unity and common prosperity are the fundamental objectives of the government in handling the relations between minority ethnic groups. China exercises a policy of regional autonomy for various minority ethnic groups, allowing ethnic group peoples living in compact communities to establish self-government and direct their own affairs. Han Chinese Han Chinese makes up 92 percent of the total population. According to the 1995 sample survey of 1 percent of China's population, there were 1.09932 billion Han people (an increase of 56.84 million since the Fourth National Population Census of 1990), accounting for 91.02 percent of China's total population. Han people are found in all parts of the country, but mainly in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River (Huanghe), Yangtze River (Changjiang), Pearl River (Zhujiang) and the Northeast Plain. The Han people are found in all parts of the country, but mainly in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River (Huanghe), the Yangtze River (Changjiang), and the Pearl River (Zhujiang) as well as the Songliao Plains. The Han nationality has its own spoken and written language, known as the Chinese language, which belongs to the Chinese-Tibetan language family. It is commonly used nowadays throughout China and is the working language of the United Nations. The Chinese language has a history of four thousand years, originating from pictograph. Traditionally, agriculture was the Hans' main occupation. Agriculture provided the nation's basic wealth and was highly advanced, especially in irrigation and intensive farming. There was also a high level of handicraft production, such as bronze, silk, porcelain, architecture, and painting. The Han culture belongs to the world's oldest civilizations, boasting a lot of outstanding achievements in many fields including politics, military affairs, philosophy, literature, history, art and natural science, etc. The rich Han culture has given birth to many notable scientists, philosophers, artists and poets who, as the nation's elite, have had great influence on the course of Chinese history. China 's four great inventions -- compass, papermaking, printing and gunpowder -- have exerted great influence on the history of human development. In Han culture, Confucianism, the oldest form of Chinese religion whose concepts and teachings have dominated the Chinese ruling class as well as intellectuals for the last two thousand years, is a philosophy rather than a religion. Ancestor worship is widely practiced across the entire country; although it has been simplified in modern time, it never fades away from the Chinese community. Buddhism is the most popular form of Chinese religion. Since its introduction in 400AD, Buddhism has slipped into and occupies every aspect of the Chinese lifestyle. Daoism, named national religion, originated in the Han Dynasty, but is not widely accepted. Besides, there is an increasing number of Chinese who practices Roman Catholicism, Christianism and Islamism. The appellation of "Han" originated from the Han Dynasty during the 2 nd and 3 rd centuries, the first prosperous dynasty of Chinese history after Qin unifying China . And it continues to be the majority population in China , merged with many different tribal clans like the Yi, Qian, Di and Man. Before that, the people were called "Huaxia". The earliest Han people can be traced to the Hua Xia tribe, who originally settled in the middle area of the Yellow River (Huanghe). The legendary leader of the Hua Xia tribe was Huang Di (Emperor Yellow). The Chinese refer to themselves as the descendants of Huang Di, and describe the Yellow River as the cradle of their civilization development. Minority Ethnic Groups Most of these 7 percent live in the vast areas of the West, Southwest and Northwest. The largest is the 12 million-strong Zhuang in southwestern China. Although minority ethnic groups account for about 7% of the population, they are distributed over some 50% of Chinese-controlled territory, mostly in border regions. Self-government of Minority Ethnic Groups Self-government in ethnic group autonomous areas is affected through the local people's congress and people's government at the particular level. There are currently five autonomous regions in China. They are Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region founded on May 1, 1947, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region founded on October 25, 1958, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region founded on October 1, 1955, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region founded on March 5, 1958 and Tibet Autonomous Region founded on September 9, 1965. In addition, China also has 30 autonomous prefectures and 121 autonomous counties (or in some cases, banners). The committee of the People's Congress and the head of the government of an autonomous region, autonomous prefecture or autonomous county belong to the area's designated ethnic group. Organs of self-government in regional autonomous areas enjoy extensive self-government rights beyond those held by other state organs at the same level. These include enacting regulations for self-government and specialized regulations corresponding to local political, economic and cultural conditions; making independent use of local revenue, and independently arranging and managing construction, education, science, culture, public health and other local undertakings. The Central Government has greatly assisted in the training of ethnic group cadres and technicians through the establishment of institutes and cadre schools for minority ethnic groups to supplement regular colleges and universities. It has, in addition, supplied the ethnic group autonomous areas with large quantities of financial aid and material resources in order to promote their economic and cultural development. = Chinese Traditional Medicine There were many great inventions in ancient China. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) was one of them. TCM is not merely a general invention, but also a great invention, which in fact, can be called the "fifth great invention in ancient China." TCM's contribution to the world is not only an original medical system but also a part of China's traditional culture. Traditional Chinese Medicine-The Fifth Great Invention of China Scientist Francis Bacon once gave a high opinion, when he appraised China's four big inventions' contribution to the world, saying, "They completely changed the world's appearance…there was no other country, religion, or person who had displayed as big an influence on human progress than them."There were many great inventions in ancient China. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) was one of them. TCM is not merely a general invention, but also a great invention, which in fact, can be called the "fifth great invention in ancient China." First, TCM (the classical Chinese medicine system, which developed from ancient times to 1840) was originally created by China and is an outstanding representative of ancient China's science and technology. Second, since the 1970s, Chinese medicine has spread to more than 140 countries and areas. Its scientific value and remarkable curative effect have been recognized by the medical circle and accepted by more and more people Third, as a "great invention," Chinese medicine has value and significance that are recognized by the whole world. Chinese Medicine's Importance to Civilization and Society For one thing, Chinese medicine has many differences to western medicine. Chinese medicine can use its advantages to cover the disadvantages of western medicine, hence contributing to overall human health. Next, Chinese medicine is deeply rooted in the study of life flow in the human body. Many famous foreign medical scientists have repeatedly pointed out that the theory of jingluo (channels) is profound and significant, adding that if China wants to take the Nobel Prize in medicine, Chinese medicine would be the most promising subject. China's renowned scientist Qian Xuesen once said that the modernization in Chinese medicine would impel a breakthrough in human science and cause a new Renaissance in the East. Traditional Chinese Medicine Has Surpassed Other Four Great Inventions First, TCM is different from papermaking, gunpowder, compass, and movable printing (which are technological inventions) in that TCM is more of an academic system both in technology and science. TCM surpasses the other four big inventions in scientific discovery and contribution. It has its special theory system, prevention and control principle, and treatment method. The most important is its understanding and control in the complex phenomenon of human life. Second, the original four great inventions were the products of a single person or dynasty. However, TCM is a kind of synthetic academic system, created by medicine scientists over countless generations. In particular, TCM is a product of the long-existent traditional Chinese civilization, and contains a spirit richly full of philosophy and humanity, covering aspects like academic thought, theory viewpoint, and clinical practice. Therefore, TCM's contribution to the world is not only an original medical system but also a part of China's traditional culture. = Historical Overview and Culture of Traditional Chinese Medicine In addition, the earliest existing book on Chinese herbal medicine, Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing (Ben means root and Cao means shoot), was written in the same period based on the work of medical experts who collected lots of materials before the Qin Dynasty (221-206BC). The book recorded 365 types of medicine, some of which is still used in contemporary clinics, and also set up a beginning of the establishment of Eastern medicine. Another book, Febrile and Other Diseases, written by Zhang Zhongjing in the third century, gave a detailed account on how to diagnose and treat various diseases caused by internal organs. This book is meaningful in that it helped the development of clinical medicine many centuries later. By the time of the Han period, surgery had reached a comparatively high level. The book, San Gou Zhi (Chronicle of the Three Kingdoms) described a doctor named Hua Tuo who was able to use general anesthesia to carry out operations. From 220 to 960 China experienced the periods of the Wei (220-265, and part of the larger Three Kinggdom Period from 220 to 280) and Jin (265-420) dynasties, the Northern and Southern Dynasties (386-589), the Sui (581-618) and Tang (618-907) dynasties, and the Five Dynasties (907-960). During these times, the method of diagnosing by feeling the pulse made further progress. During the Jin Dynasty, a doctor named Wang Shu wrote the book, Mai Jing (Pulse Classic), in which he summed up 24 ways to monitor a pulse. The book had great influence in China and beyond. In the same period, Chinese medicine was categorized and new books were written for those specific categories. In acupuncture, for example, there was the book Zhen Jiu Jia Yi Jing (Acupuncture & Moxibustion); the books Bao Bu Zi and Zhou Hou Fang showed how to make pills for immortality; and in pharmacy, there was Lei Gong Pao Zhi Lun (Lei's Treatise on Preparing Drugs). A well-known surgery book at the time was called Liu Juan Zi Gui Yi Fang (Liu Juanzi's Remedies Bequeathed by Ghosts). In the Tang Dynasty, the economy prospered, which boosted the eastern medicine. The Tang government wrote the book, Tang Ben Cao, which is the earliest existing pharmacopoeia book (an official book listing a catalog og medicine and their use) in the world. This book included 850 types of medical herbs and their pictures, which further improved the scale of eastern medicine. Then, in the period of the Song Dynasty, (960-1279) a person named Wang Wei Yi adopted new methods in teaching acupuncture. He illustrated his techniques with maps and models of human figures. Among the medicines produced by different Chinese nationalities, the medicine of the Han is the earliest and richest in practical and theoretical knowledge. Chinese medicine originated in the Yellow River basin and was established as a school of science early on. Chinese history once told a fiction of a person named Shen Nong who tasted many herbs at the same time and was then poisoned. It demonstrates what difficulty ancient Chinese people had in discovering the medicines. However, Chinese medicine progressed, and in the process of its development, many good doctors, theories, and advancements emerged. During the period from around 22 century BC to 256 BC (during the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties), alcohol medicine and soup medicine appeared. Records related to medical treatment, hygiene, and illnesses appeared on oracle bone inscriptions as far back as the Shang Dynasty (16-11th century BC) over 3,000 years ago. In the following Zhou Dynasty (11th century-256BC), doctors learned new techniques to diagnose diseases. These techniques, now known as the four major methods, include: observation, auscultation (listening to sounds of the body, such as those form the heart, lungs, and so on) and olfaction (smelling), interrogation (asking the patients questions), and pulse feeling and palpation (examining by touch). Doctors used several procedures -- including drugs, acupuncture, and operations -- to treat diseases. A book, Shi Jing (The Book of Songs) in the Zhou Dynasty (11th century-771 BC), mentioned something about medicine, making it the earliest existing book bearing records of ancient Chinese medicine. Another book, Nei Jing, which is the earliest existing book on Chinese medicine theory, presented theories like "cooling or warming the patient that has a high or low temperature respectively," "adding five flavors into the medicine will make one feel bitter inside and have diarrhea." These formed the basis of Chinese medicine theory. In the Qin and Han period (221BC-220AD) the new book, Huang Di Nei Jing (The Medical Classic of the Yellow Emperor), began to discuss Chinese medicine theories systematically. This is the earliest existing book of its kind. In the Ming Dynasty, (1368-1644) doctors began to distinguish between typhoid fever, seasonal epidemics, and plagues, with a book in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) focusing exclusively on this topic. Also in the Ming Dynasty, an expert of herbal medicine Li Shizhen spent 27 years accomplishing the book, Ben Cao Gang Mu. The book recorded 1,892 types of herbal medicine, including the most types of herbal medicines, making it the greatest book in Chinese history. It was during the Ming Dynasty that Western medicine began to be introduced to China. People in medical science then began to combine Eastern and Western medicine. This endeavor has continued to this day, with the current Chinese medicine reflecting this progression. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, plenty of researches have been done in various fields such as botany, identification science, chemistry, pharmacology, and clinical medicine. These researches have provided a scientific basis to identify the source and authenticity of herbal medicines as well as their function scheme. Later, a nationwide survey was done on the source of the medicine, which helped produced the book, Zhong Yao Zhi in 1961. In 1977, the Herbal Medicine Dictionary was publicized, which brought the number of recorded herbal medicine to 5,767. In addition, reference books, treatises, newspapers, and magazines on Chinese medicine were publicized. Also, institutions on scientific research and the teaching and production of Chinese medicine were established. |
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