= History of Ancient Traditional Chinese Clothing Han Chinese clothing, or Hanfu (TC: 漢服; SC: 汉服; pinyin: hànfú;; literally "Clothing of the Han people") refers to the pre-17th century traditional clothing of the Han Chinese, the predominant ethnic group of China. Hanfu encompasses all types of traditional clothing worn by the Han Chinese ethnic group. As such, it has a history as long as the history of the Han Chinese people. Hanfu was eliminated by Manchu invaders by force in the 17th century, and is largely unknown in China today, except among a small but vocal group of people advocating the revival of Hanfu as a Chinese national costume. Qipao and Tangzhuang, although usually regarded as traditional Chinese clothing, are not regarded as Hanfu by advocates of Hanfu revival. This is because these were introduced by the Manchus, whom revival advocates accuse of having stamped out Hanfu in the first place. Qipao and Tangzhuang are also relatively recent clothing styles, and cannot represent the entire history of Chinese clothing. Many traditional costumes of Asian countries, such as the kimono in Japan, along with the traditional dresses Korean Hanbok and Vietnamese ao dai, are derived from Hanfu and have the same style as Hanfu. In contrast to China, Japanese and Korean traditional dress have been preserved over the centuries, and are close to what pre-Manchu Hanfu looked like. According to Chinese tradition, Hanfu can be keith traced back to the Yellow Emperor, a great sage king of ancient China whom legend says ruled in the 27th century BC. Hanfu itself has a recorded history of more than 3000 years. It was worn by Han Chinese people from the semi-legendary Xia Dynasty (c. 21st century BC - 16th century BC) all the way to the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). The traditional dress of many Asian countries have been influenced by Hanfu, especially those of Japan and Korea. Hanfu was regarded by Han Chinese as a very important part of their culture. The wearing of appropriate styles of Hanfu was an important part of courteous refined behaviour. Confucius considered Hanfu a very important part of Chinese ceremony and ritual and many of his quotations contain references to Hanfu. The disappearance of Hanfu Hanfu disappeared at the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). The Qing Dynasty was founded not by Han Chinese who form the overwhelming majority of the population of China proper, but by the Manchus, a semi-nomadic people which first rose to prominence in Manchuria. Taking advantage of the political instability and frequent popular rebellions convulsing China, the highly organized military forces of the Manchus swept into the Ming capital of Beijing in 1644 (which itself had earlier fallen to rebel forces under Li Zicheng), and formed the Qing Dynasty. The Manchus foresaw that they would have great difficulty ruling the Han Chinese, who outnumbered them vastly and had a much more sophisticated culture. Soon after the takeover of China proper, the Manchus forced the Han Chinese men to adopt Manchu hairstyle (the pigtail) and Manchu-style clothing. There was enormous resistance to these policies, especially against the pigtail, which required shaving the entire top front half of the head. (Chinese traditional dictated that removing hair was against filial piety because one received one's hair from one's parents.) Popular uprisings flaired up immediately, but those were put down brutally, especially in massacres occurring at Yangzhou and Jiading. Up to 30 to 50 million Han Chinese people may have perished in total as a result of the Manchu invasion and conquest. Enforcement of the policies was swift, brutal, and effective. Hanfu was replaced by Manchu-style clothing, and soon every Han Chinese male wore a pigtail. Hanfu was still permited for women, however without the traditional support of the palace, women started replacing their hanfu clothing with styles that were influenced by the imperial court and Hanfu was completly gone within a century of Qing rule. Today After the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, Manchu dress and the pigtail disappeared quickly in favour of western-style dress. Today most Han Chinese wear western-style clothing, and Han Chinese clothing is largely unknown. Recent attempts by Hanfu advocates in China to wear Hanfu outdoors have provoked curious reactions from onlookers, many of them mistaking Hanfu for Japanese dress. However, there is a small but vocal movement in China to revive Han Chinese clothing as a Chinese national custom. Legend According to legend, the first ruler of the Chinese nation and the ancestor of the Chinese people is an immemorial sage king called the Yellow Emperor. According to traditional reckoning, he unified the North China Plain in 2697 BC. Legends say that under his rule, China was a prosperous and powerful nation with stable politics and advanced culture. Many cultural and technological inventions are attributed to his reign, such as the Chinese written language, methods of agriculture, music, the Chinese calendar and so on. The Yellow Emperor's imperial consort, Leozu [Su], was said to be the first person to know how to raise silkworms and make silk from the silkworm cocoon, from which Hanfu was woven. Thus the Chinese Hanfu was invented. Because Leizu had provided China with beautiful silk and Hanfu, she is often revered as the female ancestor of the Chinese people, and respectfully addressed with the title of Xianchan since the Western Zhou Dynasty. Pre-literate era During ancient times, human beings wore clothing for practical purposes. During the Stone Age, they learned how to make and use increasingly complex tools. They invented the bone awl and the bone needle and created primitive clothing with the aid of these tools. Approximately 5000 years ago, China was in the Neolithic Period. People's lives were becoming more stable, allowing the development of primitive agriculture and the textiles industry. At first people wore clothes of woven linen. Later they discovered how to raise the silkworm and spin silk, and as a result their clothing became increasingly elaborate. Shang Dynasty According to archaeological discoveries, the basic shape and style of Hanfu were already and almost completely developed during the Shang Dynasty (c. 16th century BC - 11th century BC), the first attested dynasty of China. Clothing from this period was mainly composed of two parts, the Yi (coat) on the top and the Shang (skirt) underneath. The sleeve cuff was narrow. The Yi did not have any buttons and was fixed with a broad sash tied around the waist. A Bixi hung from the waist sash was used to shade the knees. Archeological finds show that fabrics in this period were mainly in warm colors, especially yellow and red, along with brown. There were also cooler colors like blue, green etc. Because the red and yellow dyes were made from mercury sulfide and orpiment, they were brighter than the other colors and were of stronger penetrability; hence they were more able to last unchanged until today. Modern scientific analysis has shown that dyeing and weaving methods were often used at the same time during Shang and Zhou periods. Orthochromatic colors such as red and yellow were often used to draw on the fabrics after they were woven. Western Zhou Dynasty The Western Zhou Dynasty (11th century BC - 711 BC), established under a feudal system, consolidated the empire by a strict social class system and formulated a set of extremely exhaustive and thorough etiquette to standardize society and stabilize the country. The different styles of Hanfu worn symbolized each person's social class. As Hanfu was one of the cornerstones of the political foundation, stipulations were very strict. Zhou Dynasty Hanfu followed the form and style of the Shang Dynasty, with a few changes. The style was slightly looser compared with the Shang Dynasty. There were two kinds of sleeve styles: broad and narrow. The collar were crossed and tied to the right, known as "Jiaoling Youren". The Yi had no buttons but instead had a sash tied around the waist for closure. Sometimes people also hung ornamental decorations made of jade on the waist sash as well. The length of skirts and trousers varied from reaching the knees to reaching the ground. Eastern Zhou Dynasty Shenyi (deep robe), an important kind of Hanfu, was introduced during Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period. Shenyi is a kind of full-length, one-piece robe which links the Yi and Shang together to wrap up the body. It is cut separately but sewn together. Shenyi was named because when it was worn "the body was deeply wrapped up". Shenyi continued the Hanfu's characteristic of Jiaoling Youren and made a big impact on society. Everybody could wear it regardless of gender, profession or social class. During this time the weaving and dyeing techniques were already very advanced, as many complicated and magnificent patterns already appeared on Hanfu. The Influences of Hanfu Due to the length of its history and China's overwhelming cultural influence on the region, Hanfu has significantly shaped the styles of traditional costumes of many other Asian countries. Some countries such as Vietnam, which was frequently either a vassal state or under the direct control of China before 1884 (when the French invaded Vietnam), have traditional dresses that are exactly the same as Hanfu. Other Asian countries' traditional costumes, such as Korea Hanbok and Japanese Kimono, do have some differences from Hanfu. Compared with Japanese Kimono, Korean traditional dress is much more similar to Hanfu. of all the traditional costumes of Asian countries influenced by the Hanfu, the Japanese Kimono differs the most from the original. However, all the traditional dresses mentioned above inherited the unique Hanfu Style: Youren and wide sleeve. Some people in China today also mistake Hanfu for Korean Hanbok and Japanese Kimono. = Life Etiquette and Shoes In China, there are many established practices concerning shoes, many of which have become standard life etiquette. For example, shoes are presented to a baby one full month after its birth; newlyweds have to wear wedding shoes at their wedding ceremony; shoes embroidered with the Chinese character fu are often given as birthday presents to elderly people; and at funerals, the children of the deceased have to wear filial shoes. Among the various shoe-related customs, wedding shoes have played an extremely important role in one's marriage since ancient times. Presenting Shoes When Delivering Betrothal Gifts In ancient times, males were referred to as qian (symbol of heaven in the Eight Trigrams, or the eight energies in the t'ai chi martial art), and females, as kun (symbol of earth in the Eight Trigrams). Women's shoes are therefore called kun shoes. During the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD), when a woman was getting married, she usually wore a pair of wooden sandals painted with colorful patterns and fastened by colorful ribbons, both of which were seen as auspicious symbols. During the Southern Dynasty (420-589), if a man was to take a wife, he had to first present to the woman a new pair of silk shoes when delivering betrothal gifts. The custom continued in many places, such as in Ningbo and Yinxian cities of today's Zhejiang Province in East China, during the dynasty's Guangxu Period. According to the local matrimonial customs at that time, when a marriage was settled, the woman's family would find out the shoe sizes of the man's grandparents and great-grand parents. Then, the woman would painstakingly make elaborate shoes for them. When delivering betrothal gifts, the man would give jewelry, silk, cattle, food, and wine to the woman's family, who would hold a feast to entertain. Afterwards, the woman's family would give the man the self-made shoes in return, which were meant to show their daughter's filial piety to her future in-laws. Shoes to Show the Bride's Needlework The shoes made by the bride, though not necessarily for herself, are a must among the bride's dowry in many places. In the Shangluo Region of North China's Shanxi Province, every woman, prior to her marriage, has to make a pair of shoes for every member of her fiancé's family. On the wedding day, after the wedding ceremony, the bride has to distribute the shoes she has made to every family member, who will try on the shoes on the spot and make some comments. The shoes, in addition to showing the bride's needlework, also signify that the bride will respect the elder, love the young, and get along well with the whole family. The "Sifting Shoes" Custom There is an interesting custom called "sifting shoes" among today's Zhuang Ethnic Minority people today. When two young people get married, the bride's sisters escort her to the bridegroom's family. Then a wedding ceremony is held, in which the bride and bridegroom make formal bows to the groom's parents. After that, the escorts sing songs together before the bridegroom's family lay out the wedding banquet, during which the ritual of tea or wine serving is held. As the escorts are beginning to take leave, a young man brings out a sift (container of sort) and begins "sifting shoes". Usually, the escorts will decline politely before putting the shoes they bring with themselves into the sift. Every time the man receives a pair of shoes, he will put a red packet into the container and then presents it to the escort as he shakes the container and sings songs of gratitude. He does this until he has "sifted" shoes into red packets for all the escorts. Auspicious Wedding Shoes During the wedding ceremony, the bride usually wears special wedding shoes. For example, in Southern Fujian Province, the bride has to wear a pair of shoes embroidered with patterns of a turtle or a deer, which symbolizes blessing, happiness, and longevity after marriage. In southern Zhejiang Province, making shang jiao xie (shoes worn while stepping into the sedan chair) before getting into the sedan is akin to praying for auspiciousness. Either the bride or others can make the wedding shoes. These kinds of shoes are made with red and green cloth and usually with a soft sole, and are worn by the bride as she steps into the sedan chair. In some places, relatives who are thought to have good fortune make such shoes, while in other areas, they are made by the bride and another single girl on the morning of the wedding day. All about Wedding Shoes In the Haizhou Region of East China's Jiangsu Province, wedding shoes are known as xi xie or "happy shoes". Before liberation (in 1949), when a girl was getting married, she usually wore a pair of happy shoes, which were made with red cloth or silk and were sometimes embroidered with flower patterns in the front part. With the increasing appearance of leather shoes after liberation, the bridal wedding shoes gave way to the leather ones. The bridegroom's first pair of shoes after marriage should be made or bought by the bride. In the Longquan Area of Sheeting Province, there are many regulations on the bride and bridegroom's wedding shoes. For example: The bride usually wears pink or orange wedding shoes, which are made by a girl whose parents are still alive or a grandma who has witnessed three generations. The front uppers are embroidered with a pair of phoenixes picking peony flowers. Inside the shoes is a lining of white cloth, on which is embroidered a pair of the Chinese character "喜," meaning happiness. On the wedding day, the bride wears this pair of shoes to get on and off the sedan chair, as well as for the following three days. After that, the shoes will be put away. When the first child she bears reaches one month old, she wears this pair of shoes to meet guests to show that she is a first-time mother. The bridegroom's shoes, on the other hand, are made with black cloth by the same kind of people who make the wedding shoes for the bride, and can be worn until they are worn out. Variety of Wedding Shoes Wedding shoes have different names in different places. In ancient times, wedding shoes were also called "Zodiac Shoes", since a propitious date was chosen for the wedding ceremony. When getting on the sedan chair, the bride always wore a pair of yellow shoes, which were changed to red ones upon her arrival at the bridegroom's family. In some places, wedding shoes refer to shoes worn while making formal bows to the bridegroom's parents at the traditional wedding ceremony, and are therefore named cai tang xie or "stepping hall shoes". In other places, wedding shoes refer to those worn by the bride when changing her hairstyle on the wedding day, featuring a thin sole, red lining, and embroidered flower patterns. After that, the bride has to change to another pair of shoes, and throw the wedding shoes under the bed to show her determination of not marrying again. In the old days, the bride often wore a pair of soft-sole shoes when spending the night in the nuptial chamber softened by candlelight. When in bed, the bridegroom would take off the shoes for the bride, and then look at the drawings inside the shoes together. There is another kind of wedding shoes called hui men shoes". A month after marriage, the brides' family usually invites the bride to live with them for several days, which is known as hui men. The bride can live there for a month if accompanied by the bridegroom. Otherwise, she can only live as long as her mother-in-law allows, usually eight or eighteen days. During her stay at her parents' home, the bride has to make each member of the bridegroom's family a pair of shoes, which are the so-called hui men shoes. Life Etiquette and Shoes Embroidered Shoes: Making a Comeback History of Shoes in China Colorful Cap Little White Cap and Gaitou of Huis Peaked Hat of Jino Ethnic Minority Evolution of Caps in China Manchu Shoes and Chromatic Plumes on the Head Wooden Sandals = Chinese Kungfu (Chinese Martial Arts, Chinese Wushu) Do you know Bruce Lee, Jet Li or Jackie Chan, all famous Chinese film stars adept in Wushu? Wow, how magic and terrific! Anyone who has seen classical Chinese Kung Fu movies will be deeply impressed by the Chinese Wushu, which is called Kung Fu or Chinese martial arts in the west. This year's hottest Kung Fu movie is the Hollywood box office hit, Chow Yun-Fat's CROUCHING TIGER, HIDDEN DRAGON, another martial arts epic. Wushu (also known as kung-fu or martial arts) is one of the typical demonstrations of traditional Chinese culture. It is a sport which utilizes both brawn and brain. The theory of Wushu is based upon classical Chinese philosophy, while the skills of Wushu consist of various forms of fighting: fist fights, weapon fights, and other fighting routines (including such offence and defence acts as kicking, hitting, throwing, holding, chopping and thrusting) and unarmed combats. Wushu is not only a sporting exercise but also an artistic form. It is used to cure illness as well as for self-defence and is a comprehensive form of culture of the human body. Literally, wu means military while shu means art, thus Wushu the art of fighting or martial arts. Wushu is an important and unique component of Chinese cultural heritage with centuries of cultural history attached. Wushu not only includes physical exercise but also Chinese philosophy, meditation and aesthetics. Wushu enjoys a long history and great popularity in China. Thanks to its uniqueness and charisma originating from traditional oriental culture, Wushu is captivating the attention of more and more people in other nations. In the past, Wushu was developed for the sake of military prowess and physical well being. Wushu was seen as crucial to a soldier's survival in the time of hand -to -hand combat. Today, military function has faded and it has been organized and systematized into a formal branch of study in the performance arts by the Chinese, while it's physical welfare and athletic functions become dominant. Hence Wushu is popular among the whole nation of China, practiced by men and women, young and old alike. Today many people practice Wushu to pursue health, defense skills, mental discipline, entertainment and competition. Wushu can be practiced solo, paired or as a group, barehanded or armed with ancient Chinese weapons. In centuries past, Wushu developed into many systems and styles. The most famous systems include Shaolin Temple system and Mt. Wudang System. Only the Shaolin system has hundreds of styles. Among the many styles are Chang quan (long fist), Nan quan (southern fist), Taiji quan (shadow boxing or supreme ultimate fist), Xingyi quan (mind fist), Baqua quan (eight directions fist). The former two belong to the external style which emphasizes physical strength and abilities while the latter three belong to the internal style that depends upon internal power-qi. The ancient weaponry of Chinese Wushu consists of many represented by 18 named weapons. Recently, Chinese Wushu has been modernized. Training and competing standard systems have been set up. Continuing its fighting function, Wushu becomes a more athletic and aesthetic performance and competitive sport. More and more foreigners come to learn the mysterious Wushu. In order to promote Wushu internationally, China Zhengzhou International Shaolin Wushu Festival will be held twice annually. Wushu is now to be a sport of the Olympic Games soon. Chinese Kungfu Characteristics As one of the earliest and long-lasting sports, Wushu has developed its own characteristics over time. Major characteristics are listed below: 1. A fight stressing the use of legs Because of its long history incorporating differences in culture, ideology, region and usages, Wushu has developed into a great variety of schools and styles. While some schools emphasize the use of fists and hand technique, others emphasize leg technique and footwork ( Fig . left ) Some take interest in the variation of acts whereas others prefer simplicity. Some focus on keeping opponents at arm's and leg's length while others like to fight in close contact. The assortment of schools and styles displays the colorful features of Wushu and gratifies the various needs of people. 2. Wushu includes the use of many weapons. Chinese ancients named the Wushu arsenal the "Eighteen Arms," but there are many more in use. Almost all fights are accompanied by weapon usage of one kind or another. The combination of fist fights and weapon usage allows for a fuller and more efficient application of Wushu skills while sh-arpening the insight of combat and control and enriching the program of Wushu exercise. 3. The combination of offence and defence is the essence of Wushu. Implications of offence and de-fence permeate the complete gamut of Wushu exercise. They are fully demonstrated in both practice and real combat. Even a solo practice implies the atmosphere of offence and defence against an imaginary opponent in time and space. Wushu masters have systematically summed up the con-tradictions of offence and defence and established a set of theories and techniques on combat. 4. The movement of the human body is only the external display of Wushu. Wushu is by no means limited to the external movement, but also emphasizes the full display of the internal temperament, mental attitude and potential of the human being. The practice of Wushu not only strengthens the bones and muscles but also the internal organs and intelligence. Coordination and cooperation are called for with each and every movement of the hand, eye, body, foot and form of movement. Wushu stresses that the mind directs the circulation of air flow within the body and that the inner circulation of air generates the external strength, so demonstrating the combination of external and internal forces. Cultivating air flows inside the body in order to improve the basic structures inside the body is an important purpose of Wushu exercises . 5. Ingenious applications of substantial and insubstantial blows are incorporated in the movements and forces of Wushu. Motion and stillness alternate with each other, while hardness and softness su-pplement one another, greatly enhancing the artistic expression and the practicality of Wushu, and de-monstrating its inclusive and equilibristic nature. Once in action, the movements can be as fast and forceful as a gust of wind, while being still, the body looks as steady as a mountain. Hard blows are like lightning and thunderclaps, whereas soft punches are like breezes delicately caressing willow twigs. Human feelings and abilities are clearly demonstrated through the rhythmic movements of opening and closing, and the emotions excited in doing exercises. Chinese Kungfu Functions Wushu boasts versatile functions, of which the most outstanding are: (1) Moral Cultivation As a human practice which stresses cultivation of moral characters and demon-stration of spirit and temperament, Wushu is conducive to developing good manners and con-duct. It also helps adjust one's psychology. The moral characters and etiquette are held in esteem by all schools of Wushu masters. (2) offence and Defence Wushu practitioners can master various offence and defence techniques of armed and unarmed combat for self defence through a great number of training exercises. Many of the Wushu techniques can also be utilized in military and police training programs. (3) Curative Effect Tai Chi Quan, one of the traditional schools of Chinese shadow Chuan, and the various still standing exercises emphasize the adjustment of one's breathing, thinking and psychology. These exercises have been proven to have good curative and re-habilitative effects on sufferers of chronic diseases of many kinds. As these exercises help strengthen the coordination of the human body and its immunity, they are ideal for preventing and curing diseases. (4) Health Improvement The practice of the basic exercises and routines of Wushu are effective methods for improving the pliability of the joints and the suppleness of the back and legs. The generation of energy, the jumping and leaping and the changes from one stance to another, all help enhance human strength and speed of movement. Wushu, therefore, can be taken as the basic exercise for other sporting activities. (5) Artistic Effect The graceful movement of the body, especially the typical oriental charm revealed during exercises and practice of Wushu, has an impressive artistic effect and provides visual delight. People can benefit mentally as well as physically from the display of the Wushu offence and defence skills and the exertion of forces through the display (Figs. below). A graceful Wushu stance A broadsword practising stance (6) Intelligence While stressing the development of physical prowess, Wushu also emphasizes the ex-ercise of thinking. By adjusting various human functions, Wushu also helps im-prove the nervous system and is therefore good for intellectual development. = Introduction of Chinese Kungfu Concept Wushu (also known as kung-fu or martial arts) is one of the typical demonstrations of traditional Ch-inese culture. It is a sport which utilizes both brawn and brain. The theory of Wushu is based upon classical Chinese philosophy, while the skills of Wushu consist of various forms of fighting: fist fights, weapon fights, and other fighting routines (including such offence and defence acts as kicking, hitting, throwing, holding, chopping and thrusting) and unarmed combats. Wushu is not only a sporting exercise but also an artistic form. It is used to cure illness as well as for self-defence and is a comprehensive form of culture of the human body. Wushu enjoys a long history and great popularity in China. Thanks to its uniqueness and charisma or-iginating from traditional oriental culture, Wushu is captivating the attention of more and more people in other nations. Characteristics As one of the earliest and long-lasting sports, Wushu has developed its own characteristics over time. Major characteristics are listed below: 1. Because of its long history incorporating differences in culture, ideology, region and usages, Wushu has developed into a great variety of schools and styles. While some schools emphasize the use of fists and hand technique, others emphasize leg technique and footwork Some take interest in the variation of acts whereas others prefer simplicity. Some focus on keeping opponents at arm's and leg's length while others like to fight in close contact. The assortment of schools and styles displays the colorful features of Wushu and gratifies the various needs of people. 2. Wushu includes the use of many weapons. Chinese ancients named the Wushu arsenal the "Eighteen Arms," but there are many more in use. Almost all fights are accompanied by weapon usage of one kind or another. The combination of fist fights and weapon usage allows for a fuller and more efficient application of Wushu skills while sh-arpening the insight of combat and control and enriching the program of Wushu exercise. 3. The combination of offence and defence is the essence of Wushu. Implications of offence and de-fence permeate the complete gamut of Wushu exercise. They are fully demonstrated in both practice and real combat. Even a solo practice implies the atmosphere of offence and defence against an imaginary opponent in time and space. Wushu masters have systematically summed up the con-tradictions of offence and defence and established a set of theories and techniques on combat. 4. The movement of the human body is only the external display of Wushu. Wushu is by no means limited to the external movement, but also emphasizes the full display of the internal temperament, mental attitude and potential of the human being. The practice of Wushu not only strengthens the bones and muscles but also the internal organs and intelligence. Coordination and cooperation are called for with each and every movement of the hand, eye, body, foot and form of movement. Wushu stresses that the mind directs the circulation of air flow within the body and that the inner circulation of air generates the external strength, so demonstrating the combination of external and internal forces. Cultivating air flows inside the body in order to improve the basic structures inside the body is an important purpose of Wushu exercises . 5. Ingenious applications of substantial and insubstantial blows are incorporated in the movements and forces of Wushu. Motion and stillness alternate with each other, while hardness and softness su-pplement one another, greatly enhancing the artistic expression and the practicality of Wushu, and de-monstrating its inclusive and equilibristic nature. Once in action, the movements can be as fast and forceful as a gust of wind, while being still, the body looks as steady as a mountain. Hard blows are like lightning and thunderclaps, whereas soft punches are like breezes delicately caressing willow twigs. Human feelings and abilities are clearly demonstrated through the rhythmic movements of opening and closing, and the emotions excited in doing exercises. Functions Wushu boasts versatile functions, of which the most outstanding are: (1) Moral Cultivation As a human practice which stresses cultivation of moral characters and demon-stration of spirit and temperament, Wushu is conducive to developing good manners and con-duct. It also helps adjust one's psychology. The moral characters and etiquette are held in esteem by all schools of Wushu masters. (2) offence And Defence Wushu practitioners can master various offence and defence techniques of armed and unarmed combat for self defence through a great number of training exercises. Many of the Wushu techniques can also be utilized in military and police training programs. (3) Curative Effect Tai Chi Quan, one of the traditional schools of Chinese shadow Chuan, and the various still standing exercises emphasize the adjustment of one's breathing, thinking and psychology. These exercises have been proven to have good curative and re-habilitative effects on sufferers of chronic diseases of many kinds. As these exercises help strengthen the coordination of the human body and its immunity, they are ideal for preventing and curing diseases. (4) Health Improvement The practice of the basic exercises and routines of Wushu are effective methods for improving the pliability of the joints and the suppleness of the back and legs. The generation of energy, the jumping and leaping and the changes from one stance to another, all help enhance human strength and speed of movement. Wushu, therefore, can be taken as the basic exercise for other sporting activities. (5) Artistic Effect The graceful movement of the body, especially the typical oriental charm revealed during exercises and practice of Wushu, has an impressive artistic effect and provides visual delight. People can benefit mentally as well as physically from the display of the Wushu offence and defence skills and the exertion of forces through the display. (6) Intelligence While stressing the development of physical prowess, Wushu also emphasizes the ex-ercise of thinking. By adjusting various human functions, Wushu also helps im-prove the nervous system and is therefore good for intellectual development. = History of Kungfu Physical fitness exercises have been practised in China for thousands of years. The ancient Chinese were well aware of the importance of physical fitness and continuously sought ways for its improvement. Through the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States Periods (770-221 B.C.), a method called daoyin was evolved for promoting health and curing certain diseases by combining regulated, controlled breathing with physical exercises. In a Western Han dynasty (206 B.C-25A.D. ) tomb discovered several years ago on the outskirts of Changsha in Huanan Province, a silk scroll was found on which figures of daoyin exerecises were drawn in different postures--sitting in meditation, stretching, bending , and squatting. Towards the end of the Eastern han dynasty (25-220 A.D.), the renowned medical scientist Hua Tuo (?-208) wrote: " The human body requires constant exercise", and " regular exercise aids digestion, stimulates circulation and helps the body to resist diseases". He created a set of exercises named wuqinxi (Five-Animal Play) mimicking the movements of the tiger, the deer, the bear, the ape and the bird. These exercises were then widely practised. Hua's disciple Fan A, a devotee of wuqinxi, was reputed to have lived to over 100. Wu pu, another follower of Hua's , was said to have had sound teeth and acute hearing and sight when well into his 80s Hua Tuo's inventive work had a far-reaching influence on the later development of physical exercises for improving health and for therapeuteic purposes. During the Song (960-1279) and Ming (1368-1644) dynasties, there appeared a large number of exercise routines, including baduanjin (an eight-part exercise), yijinjing ( a system of muscular exercise), taijiquan (traditional Chinese shadow boxing) and Qigong (breathing exercises) which have retained their popularity up to this day. Since the founding of the People's Repulic in 1949, great efforts have been made to study and improve upon many traditional forms of fitness exercises in line with the policies of "making the past serve the present" and "weeding through the old to bring forth the new". In particular, the State Physical Culture and Sports Commission has organized specialists to conduct intensive research ontaijiquan, the most popular of all traditional exercises. Their results have been compiled in a set of simplified tijiquan with 24 forms and another more complicated set with 88 forms. Chartacterized by gentle, rhythmic movements, natural breathing and physical and mental coordination, taijiquan is of particular benefit to the old and te weak and those suffering from chronic diseases, thought people of any age and at any fitness level can derive great benefits from practising it. Qigong was cited for its therapeutic value in Huangdi Neijing (Yellow Emperor's Manualof Internal Medicine), the oldest known Chinese medical treatise, which is believed to have been written in the Warring States Period. Intensive efforts are now being devoted to its study and application with rewarding results. Many new works have been written on the salubrious effects of qigong on the nervous, respiratory and digestive systems. In recent years, many physical culture in stitutes, sanatoriums and hospitals in China have created a variety of remedial exercises by assimilating useful elements from traditional exercises. Based on modern therories of anatomy, sports physiology and biomechanice, these new exercises are designed to suit the needs of particular professions, such as steel-workers, coalminers and textile workers or to treat or prevent certain ailments, such as gastroptosis and eye strain. For example, at the Lake Taihu Workers' Sanatorium in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, specialists have developed a set lower back exercises derived from the traditional wuqinxi (Five-Animal Play). These exercises produce results impossible to achieve by the use drugs alone. Out of 109 cases under examination at the Lake Taihu Sanatorium, 89 showed cures or marked improvement after a year's practice of these ever effective exercises. = Content and Classification of Kungfu Solo Practice | Routines | Group Practice | Weapon | Sparring | Duel | Neigong Solo Practice of Kungfu Solo practice is the basis of Wushu. This includes exercises for basic movements and skills and various still standing exercises. Some are aimed at developing the physique of Wushu practitioners, while others are aimed at strengthening the circulation of air flow inside the body so as to keep the practitioners in good health. Still others stress improving their standard of fighting skills. (1) Basic Exercises and Movements Wushu basics include the movements of shoulder, arm, waist, leg and hand as well as footwork, jumps, leaps and balancing. Both Wushu amateurs and professionals have sorted out many good methods of doing exercises and gradually formed a complete and systematic set of basic skills and techniques. Through the exercises of Wushu basics, Wushu practitioners can have their entire bodies trained and improved to meet the demands of the special martial arts. The basic exercises help lay the foundation for learning and mastering the fighting skills and for improving their Wushu arts standard. Doing the basic exercises in a regular way will enhance the pliability and suppleness of joints and ligaments of the body, and the control and increment of the necessary elasticity of the muscles, so as to enable Wushu practitioners to execute their acts with quality and to speed up their mastery of Wushu skills. These exercises can prevent and reduce injuries likely to occur during exercises. (2) Still Standing Exercises The standing exercises are the unique method of practising Wushu. It is an art of using stillness to control motions and movements. The muscles and nerve system are more coordinated and the power is more fully developed through the standing ex-ercises. While practising standstills, the practitioner is advised to dispel unrelated thoughts from his mind in order to concentrate, and keep his body in a fixed posture for a comparatively long time. By so doing the practitioner can better mobilize the inner circulation of air flow and guide it to reach out to all extremities in order to syn-thesize the external and internal forces. Standing exercises focus on exercising the mind, and call for natural breathing, high concentration, and proper posture of the body. Unadvisable or stiff movements should be avoided. The standing exercises have health enhancing as well as fighting functions. Different standstills are done for different purposes. = Kungfu Styles Kung means 'discipline' and Fu means 'person', hence, 'Kung Fu' refers to a disciplined person. Kungfu is often mistaken by the uninitiated as simply as a physical activity. However, it is far from the truth, especially for Shaolin Kungfu. There are many styles or schools of kungfu. Traditionally, these numerous styles are divided into two major groups, namely internal kungfu and external kungfu. The three well known internal kungfu styles are Taijiquan (Tai Chi Chuan), Bagua zhang (Pakua Palm), and Xingyiquan (Hsing Yi Kungfu). External kungfu includes Shaolin Kungfu and all its derived styles. Today, the two most well known branches of Shaolin Kungfu are Northern Shaolin which emphasizes on kicking, long range, acrobatic and ground-fighting techniques, and the Southern Shaolin which emphasize on higher stances and hand techniques. Limited by space, it is impossible to describe each and every school of Chinese Chuan in Chinese Wushu. Therefore only the most representative and influential schools are dealt with. The origins, features, basic theory and technical characteristics for several dozen schools are discussed here. From here one can gain a general understanding of Chinese Wushu. Shaolin Quan (Shaolin Chuan) Chang Quan (Long-style Chuan) Tai Chi Quan (Shadow Chuan) Fanzi Quan (Tumbling Chuan) Cha Quan Qigong Xingyi Quan (Form and Meaning Chuan) Bagua Zhang (Eight-diagram Palm) Pigua Quan (Axe-hitch Chuan) Baji Quan (Eight Extremes Chuan) Liuhe Quan (Six-combinations Chuan) Hua Quan (China-style Chuan) Sanhuang Paochui (Three-emperor Cannon Chuan) Nan Quan (Southern-style Chuan) Tongbei Quan (Back-through Chuan) Xiangxing Quan (Animal-imitating Chuan) Chuojiao (Feet Poking Chuan) Tantui (Leg Flicking Chuan) Hong Quan (Hong-clan Chuan) Yuejia Quan (Yue-family Chuan) Zui Quan (Drunkard Chuan) Yingzhao (Eagle Claw Chuan) Tanglang Quan (Mantis Chuan) Ditang Quan (Ground Tumbling Chuan) Ditang Quan (Ground Tumbling Chuan) He Quan (Crane Chuan) Yongchun Quan (Ode to Spring Chuan) Luohan Quan (Arhat Chuan) Yi Quan (Mentality Chuan) Hua Quan (Flower-style Chuan) Lanshou Men (Blocking-hand Chuan) Ziran Men (Nature Chuan) Chanjia Quan (Chang-family Chuan) Mian Quan (Continuous Chuan) Duan Quan (Short-range Chuan) Massage Baduanjin Wudang Martial Arts A major aspect of Taoist influence on Chinese culture is its martial arts. Chinese martial arts of all sorts have a long history and a great diversity of methods and styles. Generally speaking, they are divided into two big schools: the south school and the north school....... = Weapons of Kungfu The weapons used by Wushu masters originate mainly from ancient military weapons. The Eigh-teen-Arms, the term used to describe Wushu weaponary includes the sabre, spear, sword, halbert, axe, battle axe, hook, fork, whip, mace, hammer, talon, trident-halberd, cudgel, long-handled spear, short cudgel, stick and meteor hammer. Some weapons are used to fight at a distance, while others at close range. Some are overt whereas others are covert. Some are hard while others are soft. Their functions are wide ranging-they beat, kill, hit, shoot and block with cutting blades, hooks, points or pricks. The assortment of Wushu weapons has added to the colorful programs of martial arts, and pro-ficiency in Wushu involves being skilled in the techniques and usage of the Eighteen-Arms. A brief introduction to the weapons and their individual characteristics follows. = Ethics & Etiquette of Kungfu Chinese Wushu embodies a profound philosophy and a sense of human life and social values (some people therefore call it "philosophic Chuan"). It emphasizes traditions, experience and rational knowledge, all of which are clearly reflected in the martial ethics of Wushu. That's why it can display the oriental civilization via combat skills and become an inexhaustible treasury of the human body culture. As a form of social ideology, morality differs in different historical periods. It is the summation of the code of conduct of a given society for the adjustment of the relationships between man and man and between man and the society. Generally speaking, it evaluates man's behavior and adjusts each other's relations with such conceptions as the good and the evil, justice and injustice, fairness and partiality, and honesty and dishonesty. Wushu is a system of skills and theories the Chinese people have developed through their struggle with nature and in the course of their social life, for combat and to promote health and improve one's temperament. Combat in the usual sense means violence, bloodshed and death. For this very reason, few of the various combative techniques and skills in the world are combined with morals. On the contrary, Wushu has been influenced ever since its birth by moral principles and has developed a complete code of moral behavior. Martial ethics, formed in such a Chinese cultural environment, has become a distinct feature of Wushu and is an essential part of the study and understanding of Chinese martial arts. The main points of the martial ethics are Respect For Human Life In ancient China, human beings were regarded as the most valuable treasure of nature. Man is called one of the "four greats," together with the heaven, earth and truth, or law of natural activities. Who respects human life loves life better and who knows human life better knowns Wushu better. It was for protecting and maintaining human life that Wushu took birth. Emphasis On Moral Principles Moral principles provide the basis for maintaining a stable relationship between man and man, and between man and society. Those who want to learn Wushu shall respect these principles and never do anything harmful to these Chinese cultural traditions. Emphasis on Moral Conduct And Manners While learning martial skills, one should also cultivate the fine qualities. A sense of justice, diligence, persistence, honesty and hard work are also encouraged. Respect For the Teacher And Care For Each Other In learning Wushu, one should try hard to master everything that is taught. Both teacher and student should take care of each other and treasure the friendship between them. Modesty And Eagerness Those who learn martial arts should keep improving their skills and refrain from being arrogant and imperious, and flaunting their martial skills while belittling others. Everyone should learn from each other to improve and be united and cooperative with each other. Freedom From Personal Grudges In learning Wushu, one aims at self-defence, and improving one's physical conditions. One should not contend with anyone on account of a personal grudge or bully the weak. No martial skill should be overused or be resorted to for deliberate provocation. No bullying of the innocent is allowed and it is enouraged to take up the cudgels to uphold justice and truth. Persistance And Perseverance The practice of martial arts is a hard task which takes time and requires arduous efforts. Steadiness and persistance are required. One should learn and try to fully understand the essentials and inner meaning of each routine. The very cream and true essense of Wushu can be learned only through thought and actual body movements. Various Wushu schools in Chinese history had their own detailed code for martial ethics. The Shaolin school, for example, established the ten commandments for its followers. The Wudang school also regulated "five notes" in recruiting followers and teaching martial arts Martial arts are taught not to people with bad qualities, not to evil-minded people, not to bellicose people, not to drunkards, and not to those who flaunt their martial arts. = Religions & Beliefs China is a country with a great diversity of religions, with over 100 million followers of the various faiths. The main religions Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism， although it is true to say that Confucianism is a school of philosophy rather than a religion. Generally speaking, Chinese people do not have a strong religious inclination but despite this the three main faiths have had a considerable following. The fact that Confucianism is a philosophy rather than religion meant that it became the orthodox doctrine for Chinese intellectuals in the days of the feudalist society. However, these intellectuals did not stick to their doctrine as a believer clings to his belief. Someone summarized the true attitude of Chinese intellectuals as - they followed the teachings of Confucius and Mencius when they were successful but would turn to Taoism when they were frustrated. Buddhism was introduced to China from India approximately in the 1st century AD, becoming increasingly popular and the most influential religion in China after the 4th century. Tibetan Buddhism, as a branch of Chinese Buddhism, is popular primarily in Tibet and Inner Mongolia. Now China has more than 13,000 Buddhist temples. Many people say they are Buddhists yet have never read the sutras. Most people will say they believe in gods, destiny, fate, luck and an afterlife. Even so, on most occasions, rather than rely on prayer, people will make decisions all by themselves or resort to either family or friends for help. A visible human being is considered far more reliable than invisible gods or spirits. China's indigenous Taoism, along with Shamanism, Eastern Orthodox hristianity and the Naxi people's Dongba religion. The Hui, Uygur, Kazak, Kirgiz, Tatar, Ozbek, Tajik, Dongxiang, Salar and Bonan peoples adhere to Islam; the Tibetan, Mongolian, Lhoba, Moinba, Tu and Yugur peoples, to Tibetan Buddhism (also known as Lamaism); and the Dai, Blang and Deang peoples to Theravada Buddhism. Quite a few Miao, Yao and Yi people are Christians. Religious Han Chinese tend to practice Buddhism, Christianity or Taoism. Islam probably first reached China in the mid-7th century. The Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) witnessed the zenith of prosperity of Islam. Now China has more than 30,000 mosques. Catholic influence reached China several times after the seventh century, and Protestantism was introduced into China in the early 19th century. Now there are more than 4,600 Catholic churches and over 12,000 Protestant churches and over 25,000 other types of protestant places of worship in China. Taoism probably took shape as a religion during the second century, based on the philosophy of Lao Zi (traditionally said to be born in 604 BC) and his work, the Dao De Jing (Classic of the Way and Virtue). China now has more than 1,500 Taoist temples. = The Taoist Tradition Laozi and the Origins of Taoism Taoism traces its origins to Laozi, whose name literally means "elder master." Early historical sources indicate that Laozi was a scholar in the royal archives in the sixth century B.C.; however, these sources are probably based on legends. It is possible that Laozi may not have existed as a historical figure. The philosophical text attributed to him, the Classic of the Way and Its Power, was compiled around the third century B.C., although some of its ideas may have been more than a century old by that time. Later, in the second century A.D., Laozi was deified as the Celestial Worthy of the Way and Its Power, one of the highest gods of the Taoist pantheon. He was seen as a direct embodiment of the Way itself. It is significant that religious Taoism has no supreme being; each god in the pantheon merely gives a face to the endlessly changing Way. Heaven and Earth: Taoist Cosmology Taoist cosmology was shaped by the way in which the Chinese traditionally understood the world. Taoists believe that when the world began, there was only the Tao, a featureless, empty void pregnant with the potential of all things. At this point, the Tao generated swirling patterns of cloudlike energy, called qi (pronounced "chee"). This energy eventually developed two complementary aspects: yin, which is dark, heavy, and feminine, and yang, which is light, airy, and masculine. Yin energy sank to form the earth, yang energy rose to form the heavens, and both energies harmonized to form human beings. Consequently, the human body holds within it the energies of both the earth and the heavens, making it a microcosm of the world. Both yin and yang split further into subdivisions known as the Five Phases, which can be understood through their associations with the elements, seasons, and directions: greater yang: wood and spring (east) lesser yang: fire and summer (south) greater yin: metal and autumn (west) lesser yin: water and winter (north) the central phase: earth and the solstices The central phase represents a balance of yin and yang. The primary symbols of yin and yang in ancient China were the white tiger and green dragon, also symbols of autumn and spring, respectively. By the Song dynasty, the Taiji diagram, commonly known in the West as "the yin-yang symbol," came to represent yin and yang as well. This diagram illustrates the unity and interdependence of yin and yang within the Tao, with a yin dot in the yang side of the diagram and vice versa. It also represents the idea that yin energy begins to rise from its lowest level when yang is at its height. Likewise yang begins to rise when yin is at its height. This is most evident in the cyclical movements of the seasons: the first signs of spring begin to appear immediately after winter has peaked and begun to subside. Sacred Mountains and Cults of the Immortals The ancient Chinese believed that matter and energy (qi) were fundamentally the same. With their forms thrusting up toward the heavens, mountains were the most visible examples of energy converted into matter. As such they have always played an important role in the religious beliefs of the Chinese. Central to the worship of mountains was the belief that there were Five Sacred Peaks, in the north, south, east, west, and center of China, that were directly linked to the heavens. Because of their special energy, mountains were believed to nurture the magical herbs and fungi used in elixirs of immortality. They were also considered fitting places for meditation and spiritual retreat. Mountains also served as the earthly homes of immortals and gods. One of the most famous early goddesses, the Queen Mother of the West, was believed to dwell on a sacred mountain called Kunlun to the far west of China. She was thought to have appeared to several emperors to teach them the arts of longevity and was worshiped by all levels of society as a divine matriarch. Other immortals were also associated with mountains. In fact, some of the most important Taoist temples devoted to these immortals were actually built on their sacred mountains. Worship of these immortals, including the Queen Mother of the West, continues in Chinese communities today. - Taoist Culture - Holy Lands - Doctrines - Rites - Taoists & Sects - Legends = Introduction of Buddhism The exact time of the introduction of Buddhism into China is hard to be ascertained. At its early years after introduction, Buddhism did not have much influence. It is said that in the year 2BC, Yi Cun, an emissary of Dayuezhi Kingdom (an ancient mid-Asian country established by a strong Chinese minority originally living in northern China and later moved to the west), arrived in Chang'an (today's Xi'an City), capital of China at the time. He dictated Buddhism to Doctor Jing Lu. And this is the first record about the introduction of Buddhism into China. There is another saying that during the reign of the Indian King Asoka (272-226 BC), 18 Indians visited China's Xianyang City during the reign of Qin Emperor Shihuang (the first ever emperor of the Qin Dynasty, 246-210 BC, and therefore the first ever emperor of feudal China). In the year 250BC, King Asoka convoked the third conference and, after the conference, Dade was sent to spread Buddhism to other countries including China. Indian Buddhism was established in the 6th century BC. As inhabitants in the Indian River valley had frequent contacts with people in Yutian of Xinjiang, China, Buddhism was introduced into Yutian via Kashmir in the 1st century BC. Chinese copied Sanskrit lections on their unique writing materials, but without translating the Sanskrit. Actually, before this Indian Buddhists had been to Xianyang, the ancient Chinese capital, however, Indian Buddhism had not chances to spread in China. As stated above, during the Western Han Dynasty (206BC-8AD), Emperor Mingdi sent 18 people to Darouzhi of India to learn Buddhism, and got the Buddha portraits and sutras, then returned to Luoyang together with Indian Buddhists Kashyapamtanga and Dharmaraksha. They built the White Horse Temple in which were world famous basso-relievos of six horses, but now two of which had been stolen by imperialists and are exhibited in the library of Pennsylvania University, USA. Kashyapamtanga and Dharmaraksha translated five Buddhist sutras, which are still stored in the Pagoda of White Horse Temple. During the reign of Han Emperor Huan Di (158-166), Buddhism was advocated, which made translation of Indian sutras necessary. At that time, famous monks of different countries came to China, cooperated with Chinese monks in Luoyang, and translated Sanskrit lections. From the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD) to the Tang and Song dynasties (618-1279), translation of sutras became the most important translating career. There were many famous translators such as Youchen and Youqian (form Darouzhi), Anqing and Anxuan (from Parthia), Kangju and Kang Mengxiang (from Kangju), who translated substantive sutras. During late Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220), Chinese scholars began to study Buddhism. During the reign of Han Emperor Xian Di, Confucian scholar Mou Rong wrote On Buddhism Confusions composed of 37 articles, which was the first Buddhism work in China and the prelude of popularization and climax of Buddhism study all over the country during the following Wei, Jin, South and North dynasties (220-581). The translation and spread of Buddhist sutras brought into the Chinese language many expressions deprived from Buddhism, especially figuration and legendary stories, which produced great influence on literature and history of China. Figuration was first absorbed by high-ranking officials, which was proved by examples found in Cao Cao's and Cao Zhi's poems. Some classical literature directly quoted legendary stories in sutra. For example, Liezi, which was written between the Wei Dynasty and the Jin Dynasty, adopted a story in sutra about five princes. After Buddhism was introduced into China, figures of Buddha had across-knee arms and hands, large ears, long hair, as well as white and clean teeth. Feudal superstitious historians modeled feudal emperors' images after these figures and apotheosize emperors. From this, we could find that Buddhist literature had great influences on China's feudal history. Status of Chinese Buddhism The feature of Chinese Buddhism lies in the coexistence of Mahayana Buddhism and Hinayana Buddhism as well as the concomitance of Exoteric and Esoteric Buddhism. Buddhism was initiated in India, developed in China and further expanded to Japan and Korea. However, Buddhist doctrinal classification itself never played any crucial role in Indian Buddhism as it did in China. Indian Buddhists were threatened by the values and socio-political structures of the Indian society dominated by Hinduism and Islam and vanished between 9th century and 10th century in India while Buddhism were developed rapidly in China so that China became the true homeland of Buddhism all over the world. Another feature of Chinese Buddhism is that Mahasanghika Buddhism plays an important role. Most Chinese Buddhists take Mahasanghika Buddhism as their religion except people living near Thailand, whose religion is Theravada Buddhism as well as people living in Tibet whose religion is the Esoteric Buddhism. The third feature of Chinese Buddhism is that it has ten sects. Some hierarchs founded new sects according to different canons including Tiantai Sect, Garland Sect, Three Sutra Sect, Reality Sect, Lotus Sect, Vinaya, Zen and Esoteric Buddhism. - Buddhists - Temples - Art |
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