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Chinese Ancient Coin

ZHOU DYNASTY, 1122 to 255 BC

"Zhou Dynasty", the usual name for this period, is a poor choice. When the Zhou conquered the Shang in about 1122 BC, they were very powerful, but by 6th and 7th centuries BC, Zhou was a figurehead royal seat with no power and little significance with respect to coinage. Real power was split between a number of feudal dynasties.

Some dynasties appear to have retained minting authority in their central governments, but most appear to have relegated it to the local level. This makes classification by dynasty difficult as we do not always know who the local authorities were affiliated with. We hope to one day organize the coins into their appropriate dynasties and minting authorities, but for the moment this is not possible and we must continue using the heading of "Zhou", providing only a general outline of the coinage until more information becomes available.

CH'IN DYNASTY, 255 to 206 BC

Ch'in existed as a feudal state under the Zhou since before 1000 BC, casting coins from about 400 BC.

Traditionally we refer to the Ch'in Dynasty as beginning in 255 BC when the Ch'in conquered the Zhou. Some date it to 221 BC when they finished unifying China (note this unified China was much smaller than the China we know today), but the Ch'in themselves probably would have used a date of about 325 BC when Duke Hsuan Wen adopted the title of Emperor after defeating the state of Wen and withdrew Ch'in allegiance to the Zhou.

Emperor Eri Shih Huang Tii, 209 to 207 BC

It is commonly accepted that in 221 BC, at the time of the unification, Ch'in introduced the Pan (pronounced "Ban") Liang coinage, discontinuing knife and spade coinage. This is by no means certain and we find it difficult to accept, believing the coinage of this period is more complex and knife and spade coinage was phased out gradually. There is the possibility that some Square-Foot Spades and early Square-Holed Round Coins were cast under the Ch'in, but we also believe the earliest Pan Liang were cast before 221 BC.

WESTERN HAN DYNASTY, 206 BC to AD 25

The House of Han ruled all China for almost four hundred years. The traditional starting date for Han rule is 206 BC. They were first known as the Western Han, ruling from Ch'ang-an in Shansi Province. Broken only by the brief interregnum of Wang Mang's Hsin dynasty of AD 9 to 22, the Western Han lasted until AD 25 when the capital was moved to Lo-yang (in Honan Province) and the name was changed to Eastern Han.

HSIN DYNASTY, AD 7 to 23

Interregnum of Wang Mang

The interregnum of Wang Mang was a very interesting time in Chinese history, but remember the old curse, "May you live in interesting times".

The exact dates and events that led Wang Mang to power differ a little between references, but for the time being we are using mostly those given by Robert Tye in his essay WANG MANG (paperback, 20 pages), but in a few cases, where noted, other dates may be used. If you are interested in learning more about this period and would like to read his essay, let us know and we will see if it is still available from him.

About 47 BC, Mang was born into the most powerful family in China, a family that effectively ruled through a series of puppet Han emperors. He held a series of high governmental posts before becoming Minister of War in 7 BC, but fell from favor and retired two years later.

Robert Tye records that in AD 3 Mang became father-in-law to the Emperor and, in AD 6, was appointed regent to the child Emperor P'ing Ti. This differs somewhat from the information recorded by Michael Mitchiner (in Oriental Coins and their Values, The Ancient & Classical World) who says Wang became regent to P'ing Ti in AD 1 but replaced him with Ju Tze Yung in AD 7 at which time Wang gave himself the office of Acting Emperor.

Both sources agree that in AD 9 (January 10 according to Tye) Wang declared himself Emperor, establishing his "Hsin" (new) Dynasty.

The China of Wang Mang's day was one of extreme wealth and yet extreme poverty: a very few owned almost everything while the vast majority of people just barely survived. Wang set up a system very much like modern communism, and through a series of monetary and economic reforms confiscated the wealth of the elite, redistributing part of it among the common people. His first two coinage reforms, along with the nationalization of land in his economic reforms, succeeded in confiscating the wealth of the elite, transferring it to the state treasuries where it remained until Mang's death when 150 tons of gold were found to be still in storage.

He tried (with only partial success) to abolish slavery, he nationalized land and distributed it in plots to those who wished to work it, and he reformed the tax system to make it fair to all. He brought in a system to regulate prices, and his third coinage reform was intended to facilitate trade. None of this worked the way he intended and his fourth and fifth reforms seem to have been an attempt to undo the damage.

In the end, he created a nightmare of political and economic upheaval that resulted in famines, anarchy and rebellions among displaced people. The last years of his reign were a period of chaos during which an estimated twenty-five million people died, about half China's population. It must have been a very interesting time, indeed!

As with many aspects of the early years of Wang Mang, there is dispute over his reign titles. So far we have found the following information, but it may not be fully accurate:

EASTERN HAN DYNASTY, AD 25 to 221

In AD 22, a man connected to the House of Han and known as Liu, rebelled against and captured Wang Mang, re-establishing the Western Han Dynasty. As the last Emperor of the Western Han, Liu moved the capital to Lo-yang in Honan Province, at which time he also became the first Emperor of the Eastern Han and adopted the name Kuang Wu Ti.

Although this is a list of official Emperors of the Eastern Han, following Emperor Ming Ti, most were ineffective figureheads with real power in the hands of a bureaucracy of public officials, members of the courts and military generals. The most powerful of these appears to have been Ts'ao-ts'ao, who ruled through a puppet emperor (whose name is uncertain) but who was forced to give up his throne in favor of Ts'ao-pei, Ts'ao-ts'ao's son. As Ts'ao-pei was not of the House of Han, he quickly moved to establish the Wei Dynasty.

The Han dynasty did not exactly end in AD 221, as Liu Pie, a legitimate member of the House of Han opposed Ts'ao-pei, establishing himself in Szechuan Province as first Emperor of the Minor Han Dynasty. For the next 300 years, there was a member of the House of Han ruling some part of China under various dynastic names, probably ending in AD 589 with the fall of the Ch'en Dynasty.

Few innovations occurred in Eastern Han coinage. Wang Mang's last coinage continued to circulate, and may have continued to be cast, until about AD 41 when they were demonetized and the Wu Shu were re-introduced. Only two identifiable Wu Shu varieties can be shown to have been cast during the Eastern Han (from inscriptions on molds). For the most part only generic Wu Shus were cast, in the pattern used for almost 700 years.

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Chinese Lacquer Art

Over the longstanding Chinese history, numerous treasures and heritages have been left behind, among which the lacquer art is a brilliant one. China is the earliest country in the world using natural lacquer. In the early 1970s, archeologists unearthed a red lacquer wood bowl in an excavation in the Neolithic Hemudu remains in Yuyao, Zhejiang Province. It is estimated that the bowl was made 7,000 years ago, the oldest existing lacquer ware in the world.

Traditional Chinese lacquer art applies natural lacquer liquid from lacquer trees. China is abundant in lacquer resources. Lacquer trees in Mainland China are distributed in some 550 counties in 23 provinces.

Starting from red lacquer wood bowls and painted potteries in the Neolithic age, Chinese lacquer art enjoyed rapid development in the Warring Period (770-256BC) and the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD), thanks to the upgraded productivity of the time.

According to historical documents, lacquer trees were widely planted during the Warring Period (770-256BC). Famous philosopher Zhuang Zi, founder of Daoism, worked as an official overseeing lacquer plantations for some time. At that time, lacquer was regarded as important as daily necessities such as linen, mulberry, fish and salt, and lacquer craftsmanship were remarkably raised. There were wood, bamboo and linen lacquer wares. Linen lacquerwork, not restrained from material sources, can be made in any shape. The improved craftsmanship gave rise to a multitude of lacquerwork varieties.

Red Lacquer Bowl

The Warring Period (770-256BC) embraced the first peak of lacquer art development, which continued into the Western Han Dynasty (206BC-25AD). Unearthed objects indicate that lacquer wares in the Warring Period (770-256BC) had substantially surpassed the previous ages in terms of varieties, production output and scope of distribution. In the Warring Period (770-256BC), lacquer wares were used in every sphere of society, including daily utensils, music instruments, tomb wares and even weapons. People of Chu, living in Hubei, like red color and made a large number of red lacquer wares. Their lacquer works featured two basic colors, red and black, creating unique visual effect. Red and black lacquerworks have been characteristic of Chinese lacquer art.

Lacquerworks in the Warring Period (770-256BC) represented unusually high levels in terms of design and coloring. The painted lacquer mirror case "Panorama of the Journey" unearthed in a tomb in jinmen, Hubei, vividly showcases the life of its owner, known as a masterpiece of the time.

Chinese lacquer art came into its golden age during the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD). At that time, the court, nobilities and local merchants regarded lacquer wares as symbols of fortune and status. In order to satisfy personal material needs, they spent numerous human and financial resources to make exquisite lacquer wares. Decoration techniques witnessed new developments in the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD); inlaid gold and silver pattern appeared on the lacquer wares at that time.

During the ensuing Jin (265-420AD) and Northern and Southern Dynasties (420-589AD), thanks to the introduction and widespread of Buddhism in China, lacquer art began to be applied to Buddha sculptures. One of the important excavations of this time is a lacquer wood screen unearthed in a tomb in Datong, Shanxi Province. The screen, carved with black inscriptions and painted in red lacquer, has lacquer paintings on it, which is based on "Legends of Heroic Women" of the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD). This lacquerwork is a masterpiece both for its painting and calligraphy.

One of the prominent achievements of the Tang Dynasty (618-907AD) is its progress in lacquerwork techniques. For instance, gold and silver pieces are cut into different patterns to be embedded in lacquer roughcasts and polished. Thus exquisite lacquerworks came into being.

Lacquer art was further developed in the following Song Dynasty (960- 1279AD). The flourishing economy and stable society gave rise to varieties of lacquer wares, among which the most distinctive style is single-color lacquerwork. Though deprived of decorative patterns and designs, single-color lacquerwork were made with extremely meticulous craftsmanship.

In the Ming Dynasty, a famous craftsman named Huang Cheng, based on experiences of his own and previous craftsmen, wrote the first book on lacquer art. The book was later annotated by another famous lacquer craftsman, which make it China's only completer theoretic works on lacquer art.

Since the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD), due to the widespread use of ceramics, lacquer wares gradually lost its popularity. In the modern time, with the improvement of people's life, traditional lacquerworks have already receded from the list of people's daily utensils. How to integrate lacquer art with modern life while enhancing its artistic value is an issue requiring in- depth study of lacquer artists.

Modern lacquer painting, as an independent painting genre, has developed for some 40 years and has been recognized by public. Its success should be attributed to richness of traditional lacquer art and techniques. Modern lacquer paintings have been displayed in each national fine arts exhibition. And lacquer painting courses are now offered in several fine arts colleges, including the fine arts school ofTsinghua University, Nanjing Arts Institute and the crafts and design school of Fuzhou University.

Based on traditional lacquer techniques, modern lacquer artists have explored different qualities of lacquer and created many new techniques. Lacquer is not simply a decorative material. It is now used to stick egg shells and mental pieces. Lacquer is also used as a cohesive to make colored paint together with mineral pigment. The flowing quality of lacquer enables artists to use it at their will in their creations. When it is dried, lacquer can be grinded by charred wood or abrasive paper, which make the modern lacquer art possible.

Since the 1980s, Chinese lacquer art has been showcased in many countries including Japan, South Korea, Vietnam and former Soviet Union and has drawn extensive interest of the international art circle.

Carved Black Lacquer Box of the Yuan Dynasty

Carved Black Lacquer Box, made by Zhang Cheng of the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), is a representative of carved lacquer wares of that period. The lacquer box is 6 cm in height as a whole and 14.5 cm or so in width. It looks like an arched roof and its body is in the shape of a column.

The box adopted the technique of lacquer carving. During the making process, the box was first painted with black lacquer over one hundred times. After the black lacquer formed a color layer, it was painted with red lacquer several times. Repeated this way over and over again until the lacquer layers reached the needed thickness, the artisan carved the box with cloud patterns in alternating red and black layers of lacquer until three red lines appeared on the section of lacquer layers. The box has three groups of cloud patterns on its cover and body. This carved lacquer ware is now preserved in the Anhui Provincial Museum. The work is of primitive simplicity and full of elegance, having very high artistic value and representing the highest level of China's lacquer carving technique.

Chinese carved lacquer probably dates back to the Tang Dynasty (618-907). As noted in the Treatise on Lacquer Decoration by an artisan of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), Tang lacquer ware was done on smooth boards using a vermilion color… Special lacquer ware workshops were set up in the Ming Dynasty, producing pieces distinguished for bold, simple lines and rich colors. Works of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), on the other hand, are known for their detailed designs and elaborate composition.

The Jingzhai Workshop, established in 1901 in Beijing, worked for many years in the Qing style. Over the past 40 years or so, the craftsmen there have begun to experiment with deep relief carving, hollowing and three-dimensional techniques. More than 20 colors are now used, a great change from the traditional four. A handful of factories in the Beijing area, with a combined work force of 20,000, produce carved lacquer ware -- both traditional items like jars, boxes writing articles, dishes and personal adornments, as well as prize-winning artistic creations.

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Development of Pottery

The existence of pottery was a hallmark of the Neolithic Age in primitive society.

Pottery shards of more than 10,000 years ago were discovered in the Fairy Cave site in Lishui County of East China's Jiangsu Province, and shards of sandy red pottery dating back 10,000 years ago were found in the Nanzhuang Culture site in Xushui County of North China's Hebei Province.

The site of the Peiligang Culture in Xinzheng of Central China's Henan Province and the site of the Cishan Culture in Wu'an of Hebei Province are early Neolithic sites found in northern China, dating as far back as 7,900 years ago.

The site of the Hemudu Culture in Yuyao County of East China's Zhejiang Province is another early Neolithic site that flourished 7,000 years ago. Grey pottery, red pottery, charcoal-mixed black pottery, and even an occasional piece of painted pottery were found at all these ancient sites.

The site of the Yangshao Culture at Yangshao Village in Mian County of Henan Province, and at Banpo Village in Xi'an of North China's Shaanxi Province, inhabited by people who lived in prosperity in a matriarchal clan society, are more than 6,000 years old. Large quantities of fine painted pottery were already made at that time.

With the development of the society, the quality of pottery steadily improved.

By the Shang and Zhou dynasties (16th century-221 BC), a clear-cut division of labor had already appeared among potters.

Elegant designs and pictures of flowers and birds were carved on pottery ware during the Warring States Period (475-221BC). Potters in this period introduced lead glaze, which made the surface of pottery smooth and fine and added luster to the vessels.

In the Western Han Dynasty (206BC-24AD) the art of glazing pottery became widespread. Multi-colored glaze was also introduced in the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD).

The renowned Tang Dynasty (618-907) tri-color pottery with lead glaze was the invention of potters who introduced white, yellow, blue, green, brown, and purple glazes and skillfully applied them in combination. The appearance of Tang tri-color glazed pottery marked the entry of pottery art into an era of greater variety and color, which in fact began in the Sui Dynasty (581-618).

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Tang Tri-colored Ceramics

A type of glazed pottery with the dominant colors of yellow, brown and green was very popular in the Tang Dynasty (618-907). It was later called the tri-colored glazed pottery of the Tang Dynasty, or Tangsancai .

The Tang tri-colored glazed pottery is a low-melting glazed pottery. It was made by adding metallic oxides to the colored glaze and calcining the object to create different colors, namely the predominant yellow, brown and green. The chemicals in the glaze change gradually in the firing process, creating a variegated effect with a majestic and elegant artistic attraction. Tri-colored glazed pottery was usually used as burial objects. Its loose and brittle base and its low waterproofing properties meant it was not as practical as the blue and white porcelain that had already emerged at the time.

Tri-colored glazed pottery utensils of the Tang were usually rounded and full in shape in accordance with the aesthetic values of the time. The accurately proportioned human and animal figures have fluid lines, natural expressions and life-like movements. The soldier figures have strong muscles, big staring eyes and wield swords or arrows. The female figures have high hair buns and full sleeves; they stand gracefully erect, looking natural and elegant. The animal figures are mainly of horses and camels.

A tri-colored glazed pottery of a camel and a dance group was unearthed in a Tang general's tomb. The camel is brown and stands with its head raised high. The long hairs on its head, chest, stomach and upper parts of its two front legs were carefully executed. On the camel's back is a platform covered by a rug with two ethnic musicians seated on it with their backs to each other playing instruments. A third ethnic person dances between them. The three human figures have deep eyes, high-bridged noses and full beards; they are wearing long, green sweaters with turned-down collars and white boots. The figure in the front has a deep yellow coat. This piece of pottery is truly an exquisite handicraft.

Tang Tri-Colored Glazed Pottery

Tri-colored glazed pottery of the Tang Dynasty was mostly produced in Xi'an, Luoyang and Yangzhou, which were important cities along the Silk Road. The camel was the major form of transport on the ancient trade route during the Tang. From these gazed potteries, we can imagine the travelers and camels making their hard journey across the desert, depending on one another for survival. The large figures and camels' resolute expressions represent the hardships associated with traveling on the long road.

Tri-colored glazed pottery is the crest of Tang pottery and it flourished during the dynasty's early and middle period. As the Tang gradually lost power and its porcelain-producing technology developed, tri-colored glazed pottery declined. Though tri-colored glazed pottery was also produced during the Liao (916-1125) and Jin (1115-1234) dynasties, it was not made in such great quantity and its quality was not as good as that of the Tang.

Tri-colored glazed pottery was exported to foreign countries in the early Tang, winning great favor. It was always been famed for its bright colors and pleasing shapes. Tri-colored glazed pottery of the Tang Dynasty is a shining pearl among ancient Chinese pottery.

As the tri-colored glazed pottery continued to improve through the centuries, now it has been developed even further and its varieties number several hundred. The once tri-colour glaze has expanded to include yellow, purple, black and blue and its artistic quality has also soared.

Tri-Colored Duck Potteries of the Tang Dynasty

The history of raising duck in China can be dated back to the Neolithic Age four or five thousand years ago. Primitive Chinese at this stage began to settle and tame wild animals for husbandry. Gradually, wild ducks were transformed into domesticated ducks.

China's earliest duck potteries ever found were unearthed from the remains of Yangshao Culture 4,000 years ago, located in Shanxian County, central Henan Province. In 1954, a painted gray duck pottery was excavated from the remains of Eligang Culture 2,000 years ago, located in Zhengzhou, Henan. Now collected in the National Museum of China, the ceramic duck stands in a plate, about to fly. It is obviously a domesticated duck.

China became one of the world's most powerful empires in the Tang Dynasty . Animal husbandry developed rapidly at that time, thanks to luxurious life of noblemen and landlords. Among unearthed tri-colored Tang potteries from noblemen's tombs near the capitals of the Tang Dynasty, livestock accounts for the largest part. A green gilded duck pottery was excavated from a Tang tomb in Shaanxi in the 1950s. Gilded with green and dotted with yellow and brown, the pottery features a Hedging duck. It looks ripen and awkward, with innocent and funny facial-expression.

Tri-colored Tang potteries were mostly unearthed from tombs of landlords or noblemen of the Tang Dyansty. Tombs of ordinary people usually only have common potteries. According to archeological discoveries, kilns producing tri-colored Tang potteries are mainly located in Gongxian County of Henan, Tongchuan of Shaanxi, suburb of Xi'an and Renqiu County of Hebei.

For animal-shape tri-colored Tang potteries, they were first cast in molds and then carved in detail. Those animal-shape potteries usually feature realistic styles, with much emphasis on lines and grandeur.

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Chinese Cloisonne

Cloisonne Enamel is a high-grade artwork. The earliest extant cloisonne was made in the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368). The best was made during the Xuande period (1426-1456) of the Ming Dynasty. During the Jingtai period (1426-1456) of the Ming Dynasty, it became more popular, handicraftsmen found dark-blue enamel that gave cloisonne a gorgeous, solemn look, the technique turned to be quite mature. As the blue color was mostly used, so it is called Jingtai blue, and is still used today. From then on, it seemed no any great breakthrough instead of the rapid development of using the coppery material, which used a pure coppery with better extension. Thus, the cloisonne technique arrived the crest.

The making of cloisonne integrates bronze and porcelain-working skills, traditional painting and etching. It is the pinnacle of traditional Chinese handicraft. Cloisonne has another name "inlaid enamel", which refers to the unique technique of the combination of porcelain and bronze.

When making the cloisonne, firstly, use the red coppery to make the body, secondly, stick the pattern on the bronze body by oblate and thin brass wires, then fill the inlay pattern by enamel glaze material in different colors, the last procedure is the firing over and over, polishing and gilding. We may say, the technique of cloisonne is used not only the bronze crafts, but also the porcelain crafts, meanwhile, fetching in plenty of traditional and carving technique, which is the combination of Chinese traditional arts.

In Beijing as well as other cities, most shops in hotels as well as tourist stores sell cloisonne articles, which can be as big as sacrificial utensils, screens tables and chairs, and as small as chopsticks, earrings, candy boxes, toothpicks and smoking tools. They are works of art as well as articles with use value. Craftsmen have late developed a multi-coloring technique for the making of cloisonne, which has resulted in more refined, and gorgeous products.

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Chinese Jade Art

The Chinese regard carved jade objects as intrinsically valuable, and they metaphorically equate jade with human virtue due to its solidity, durability and (moral) beauty.

Many countries boast a jadeware culture, but none of them can match China's long jadeware history. In China, jadeware underwent a long process of development beginning from the New Stone Age 10,000 years ago.

The earliest jadeware found in China was a piece of serpentine stoneware unearthed at the Immortal Cave in Haicheng, Liaoning Province, dating back more than 12,000 years. The second was a small hanging jade article excavated at Hemudu in Zhejiang Province dating back more than 7,000 years. Jadeware from that period was mainly used for personal decoration. A large number of exquisite jade objects were produced 4,000 years ago. At the time, jadeware was mainly used for witchcraft and as an emblem of privilege.

During the Shang Dynasty (1600-1100BC,) craftsmen used metal tools to make progress in jadeware models and sculpture. Round jade articles increased in large numbers and jadeware was often given as a gift.

The jade-carving technique was developed quickly in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods (770-221BC.) The Spring and Autumn Period was known for its well-carved and exquisite jadeware. The coherent and undulating patterns of the dragon, phoenix and Panli (a figure of Chinese folklore) on the jade decorations are still treasured today.

During the Qin and Han dynasties (221BC-AD220), jadeware became more practical and objects such as jade tablets became obsolete. At that time, people began to believe in the power of jadeware to increase longevity: They thought they would live forever like gods if they possessed jadeware. Therefore, the practice of burying the dead with jadeware became common. Invaluable jade figures and clothes sewn with golden thread have been found in tombs dating back to the Han Dynasty.

During the Three Kingdoms (AD220-280) until the Song and Yuan dynasties (960-1368), there were no great developments in jade carving. This changed in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) when many famous craftsmen emerged. White jade vessels with golden holders and white jade bowls with golden lids, which were unearthed in the Ming Tombs, reflected the dynasty's peak level in jade carving. The jadeware technique peaked during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) under the advocacy of Emperor Qianlong.

The patterns of China's jadeware have rich connotations, revealing strong, auspicious colors. Bats and gourds were used as subjects for more than 100 patterns because the Chinese words "bat" and "gourd" sound like "good fortune" in Chinese. When a bat was carved on an ancient coin with a hole, it meant that fortune was at hand; bats coupled with birthday peaches referred to fortune and longevity; bats mixed with sika, birthday peaches and magpies were also considered good omens. These beliefs reflected the ancient Chinese people's yearning for a happy life and revealed the essence of China's traditional culture.

Jade in China is varied and can be divided into two categories: hard and soft jade. Good materials provide a strong basis for jadeware carving, but the value of a jade object depends on the skills and reputation of the craftsman, date of carving, peculiar modeling and the owner's status. Certainly, different people will have various views on the value of the same jade object. It is difficult to have a unanimous standard. Due to the high value of ancient jadeware, there is an equally long tradition of fake jadeware, which looks very much like the real thing. Jadeware collectors should be careful and seek the opinions of professionals before making any major purchases.

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Chinese Colored Lanterns

Originating in the East Han Dynasty (25-220), Chinese colored lanterns reached their peak during the Tang (618-907) and Song (960-1279) dynasties, when people then were just as enthusiastic in watching the colored lanterns as today's Chinese people are in watching the special TV New Year program during every Chinese Lunar New Year.

Originally, people hung colored lanterns in front of their doors to drive away evil spirits. But today, with society's development, the colored lantern has largely become a symbol of traditional Chinese culture, playing an even more important role in celebrations and ceremonies.

Four of the most famous styles of colored lanterns come from the capital Beijing in North China, Suzhou city in East China's Jiangsu Province, and Haining and Wenzhou cities in East China's Zhejiang Province.

Beijing

Beijing, as one of the nation's four famous ancient capitals, boasts some of the most exquisite and elegant-shaped colored lanterns made of select raw materials. The lanterns hanging in front of the Tian'anmen Square are representatives of royal lanterns. They are made of steel frames which are then covered by red silk. Both their top and bottom mouths are decorated with ruyi (wish-granting scepter) patterns; their bottom mouths are also decorated with hanging golden tassels that shine beautifully and elegantly.

The best traditional Beijing palace lanterns require valuable rosewood as the skeleton and are usually covered with traditional-patterned thin silk or glass. Besides their original lighting function, the palace lanterns are also high works of art that are favored by Chinese lantern collectors. Palace lanterns are so named because they were first used in the palace. Now they are usually hung in halls or study rooms, for an added classic antique effect.

Suzhou

In contrast with Beijing royal colored lanterns, Suzhou-style colored lanterns usually have a rustic flavor. They boast a long history and a delicate beauty. Early in the Song Dynasty, colored lanterns developed into an individual crafts industry.

Suzhou lanterns vary greatly in shape, ranging from birds, flowers, and fishes to pavilions, terraces, towers and even human figures. Though the raw materials used are very simple, the artistic value is still high. Suzhou lanterns are known for their rich colorfulness, refined processing, ingenious structure, exquisite sculpture and grand magnificence. In raw material, the Suzhou lanterns can be classified as frameless, pearl or silk lanterns, while in shape, they can be categorized as table, pendant, wall, seated or hand lanterns.

The lanterns are a delicate combination of many artistic techniques like paper cutting, paper carving, paperhanging, and drawing. Both the construction style of classic Suzhou Gardens, and the Wu-style painting in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) influenced Suzhou colored lanterns, and helped form a unique artistic style. On the lanterns are paintings mainly of pavilions, pagodas and towers. Human figures, landscape, birds and flowers are used as decorations, forming a strong folk art flavor on the south of Yangtze River.

Among Suzhou's various colored lanterns, zou ma deng (galloping horse lantern), with its famous ingenious design, is probably the most famous. The lantern has a revolving circle of paper-cut lanterns or other figures. When the candle is lit, the circulation caused by the fire will make the inner circle revolve. The story on the paper-cut can then be read with flowing pictures. Nowadays, Suzhou's lantern-making techniques has become more advanced, and though the custom of watching lanterns in the Spring Festival has largely disappeared, new colored lanterns incorporating the modern technology still attract people all over the country to buy lanterns in Suzhou.

Haining

Haining, most widely for its Qiantang Bore natural wonder, is another renowned hometown of colored lanterns. The ancient town Xiashi has a time-honored tradition of colored lantern making, with some believing it to have a history of more than 1,000 years, starting from the Tang Dynasty and thriving in the Song Dynasty (960-1279). The Haining colored lanterns incorporate craftwork, calligraphy and painting.

Haining colored lanterns are specially known for their elaborate pinprick craft, which was enlisted as tributes to the emperor early in the Song Dynasty. The lanterns apply bamboo strips as the frame, covered by paper with paintings. The excelling pinpricked picture workmanship is completely handmade. This kind of lantern usually requires more than 10,000 pinpricks to form a picture, with some big ones requiring as many as 200,000 to 300,000. The light in the lantern beams out through the many tiny holes, forming a vividly shaped picture.

Xiashi colored lanterns are not only widely recognized on the south of Yangtze River, but also enjoy international fame. Even before the founding of the People's Republic of China, the lantern twice won medals at international expositions. In 1955, the late premiere Zhou Enlai presented Xiashi lanterns to honored guests from Sri Lanka, and in 1994 the Haining local government gave a pair of lanterns to Lee Kuan Yew, the Minister Mentor of the Republic of Singapore, winning high acclaim.

Wenzhou

A special kind of boat, dubbed "Dragon Boat Lantern", prevails in Leqing and Yongjia counties of Wenzhou City. A piece of arc-shaped wood is used as the boat's main body, while bamboo strips and paper are applied to form the shape of a dragon. The boat is three meters long and three meters high. The dragon's head in the front is delicately decorated with a pearl in the mouth and tassels hanging as the beard, while its body is composed of a five- to seven-storied pavilion.

Small flags of various colors are placed all over the "dragon" body as ornaments. The pavilion walls are made of two layers of paper. The inside layer is made of transparent white paper, and the outside is usually made of colorful paper carvings of various shapes. When the light in the "abdomen" of the dragon is lit, colorful and twinkling small figures vividly appear to the viewers. The whole boat is a combination of several boats equipped with more than 70 pavilions, on which about 300 silk figures are placed. These figures are largely from Chinese novel classics like The Romance of the Three Kingdoms and The Complete Storytelling of Yue Fei.

Metal crafts, which mainly include cloisonné, filigree inlays, variegated copperware, tinwork, iron pictures, golden and silver accessories, etc, play a special role among China's arts and crafts.

Cloisonne is a kind of enamelware where the design colors are separated by thin metal strips. Its major processes include making a red copper roughcast, forming patterns on it using thin copper strips, filling patterns with different colors, firing, and polishing. Cloisonné integrates bronze and porcelain skills, and traditional painting and etching. It is the pinnacle of traditional Chinese handicrafts.

Cloisonnefirst originated in Beijing. The earliest piece of cloisonne was made in the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), while the best examples were produced during the Xuande reign (1426-1456) of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). During the Jingtai reign (1426-1456) of the Ming, handicraftsmen found a dark blue enamel that gave cloisonné a gorgeous, solemn appeal, which is still used today.

During the Qianlong reign (1736-1795) of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), when pure copper was used as a roughcast, the art of cloisonné reached its pinnacle.

Beijingers still like to decorate their homes with cloisonnearticles and young women adore cloisonné bracelets and earrings. Cloisonné articles also make great gifts.

In Beijing, most hotel shops and tourist stores sell cloisonné articles, which can be as big as sacrificial utensils, screens, tables and chairs, or as small as chopsticks, earrings, candy boxes, toothpicks and smoking paraphernalia. They are works of art with a practical value. Recently, handicraftsmen have developed a multi-coloring technique to make cloisonné , which has resulted in more refined and gorgeous products.

As one of the famous arts and crafts of Beijing, cloisonné is a form of famous traditional enamelware with a history of over 500 years. The making of cloisonné involves an elaborate and complex process, which includes base-hammering, copper-strip inlays, soldering, enamel filling, enamel firing, polishing and gilding.

Base hammering is the first step in the making of cloisonné. The material used for the body is copper because copper is very malleable and ductile. This step requires sound judgment in the shaping and uniformity of thickness and weight. It is, in fact, much like the work of a coppersmith. The only difference is that when an article is shaped, the coppersmith's work is finished, whereas the cloisonné craftsman's work has just begun.

The second step is filigree soldering. This step requires great care and high creativity. The artisan pastes copper strips to the body that are 1/16 of an inch in diameter and a desired length chosen by the artisan, making up a complex but complete pattern. The artisan creates a blueprint in his or her mind and makes full use of his/her experience, imagination and aesthetic perspective in setting the copper strips on the body.

The third step is applying color, which is known as enamel filling. The color is like the glaze on ceramics and is called "enamel". Its basic elements are boric acid, saltpeter and alkaline. Due to the differences in the added minerals, the colors differ accordingly. Usually, iron will turn gray; uranium, yellow; chromium, green; zinc, white; bronze, blue; and gold or iodine, red. The colors are ground into powder and deposited into the cells separated by filigree.

The fourth step is enamel firing, which is achieved by putting the article with its enamel filling into a kiln. Soon after, the copper body turns red, but after firing, the enamel in the little compartments will sag slightly, which will require re-filling. This process will go on repeatedly until the little cells are full.

The fifth step is polishing, which begins with emery. Polishing aims to even out the filigree and the filled compartments. The whole piece is again put into the fire and then polished once more with a whet-stone. Finally, a piece of hard carbon is used to polish the article a final time to obtain some luster on the surface.

The sixth step is gilding, which is done by placing the article in gold or silver fluid, charged with an electric current. The exposed parts of the filigree and the metal fringes of the article will again undergo another electroplating and a slight polishing.

China is believed to be the home to umbrellas, which are still widely used in the country. The earliest umbrellas are known to have existed at least two thousand years ago, first made of silk and later popularly paper. The Chinese waxed and lacquered their paper parasols because oil repels water. In ancient times, the frames of the umbrellas were made of mulberry bark or bamboo. Red and yellow umbrellas were used by royal families, and blue umbrellas, by the common people.

The best oilpaper umbrellas are generally thought to be those from Fujian and Hunan provinces, with a good reputation for its delicate craftsmanship and vivid pattern. Their bamboo frames are treated against mould and worms. The paper covers are hand-painted with flowers, birds, figures and landscapes and then coated with oil so that they are not only practical but also pretty and durable.

Though it is only a small paper umbrella like other arts, the producing craft is without any carelessness. Take Fuzhou paper umbrella for example. The rib must be made of five-year-old bamboo produced in northern Fujian Province to make it have strong tenacity and elasticity, and possess mould resistance, antiseptic property and resistance to insects by special manufacturing. An umbrella is finished via over 80 processes, and traditionally has five independent parts -- the rib, the umbrella, the head of umbrella, the shaft and painting. The umbrella surface is made of refined cotton paper with strong pulling force. Then it is treated with pure paint, again tung oil which has strong stickiness, designed with flowers and birds, figures, landscape and scenery.

The word "umbrella" comes from the Latin root word "umbra", meaning shade or shadow. Starting in the 16th century umbrella became popular to the western world, especially in rainy northern Europe. At first it was considered only an accessory for women. Then the Persian traveler and writer, Jonas Hanway (1712-1786), carried and used an umbrella publicly in England for thirty years, and he popularized the use of umbrellas among men. The first all umbrella shop was called "James Smith and Sons". The shop opened in 1830, and is still located at 53 New Oxford St., in London, England.

The early European umbrellas were made of wood or whalebone and covered with alpaca or oiled canvas. The artisans made the curved handles for the umbrellas out of hard woods like ebony, and were well paid for their efforts.

In 1852, Samuel Fox invented the steel ribbed umbrella design. Fox also founded the "English Steels Company", and claimed to have invented the steel ribbed umbrella as a way of using up stocks of farthingale stays, steel stays used in women's corsets.

After that, compact collapsible umbrellas were the next major technical innovation in umbrella manufacture, over a century later.

At present, umbrellas in China are made of various materials: oilpaper, cotton, silk, plastic film and nylon. They are used either against the rain or as parasols to give shade from the sun. Some are built on straight frames while others are collapsible.

The prettiest Chinese umbrellas, however, are those covered with silk, and the silk parasols of Hangzhou are veritable works of art, which also serve a practical purpose. The silk, as thin as cicada's wing and printed with landscapes, is also fixed on a bamboo frame. A parasol of Hangzhou, usually 53 centimeters or 20 inches long, weighs only 250 grams or 8.8 ounces, is very handy and makes a welcome souvenir for tourists. To protect themselves against the sun, local girls like to carry parasols with them, which have long become part of the female attire.

Umbrellas or parasols, apart from their practical uses, have also become part of the paraphernalia for the stage artists of acrobatics. A notable example is the wire-walker who uses a parasol as a balancer to keep herself on the wire.

The fan is a tool used to drive away heat and stay cool. On hot days, fans can be used to simulate cool breezes. However, since ancient times, Chinese fans have brought artistic charm, enjoying a unique, national flavor. During its long history, the negligible fan was not only intended for daily use, but had also become interwoven with the wisdom of Chinese cultural arts and the soul of the industrial arts of all times, becoming the wonder of China's many fan styles.

More than 3,000 years ago, China had its own fans which come in various types, such as paper fans, silk fans, feather fans and bamboo fans, to name a few. Many are shaped like plum blossoms, Chinese flowering crabapples, sunflowers, etc.

Feather Fan: The feather fan emerged in China around the Shang Zhou Dynasty over 3,000 years ago. The main and best materials used for this type of fan are feathers from large birds, such as quills of fleck willets, tail feathers of the black wide goose, tail feathers of the magnificent peafowl, wing feathers of the round fleck owl, tail feathers of the crane and the white or gray goose.

The work process includes searching, choosing, brushing, washing, arranging, repairing, sewing, fixing, rearranging, and decorating, etc. If the final color does not reflect the original feather, another procedure of dyeing should be done. The most important process to a feather fan is the pairing of feathers on both sides, which are plucked from both wings of one bird.

Shaped Fan: Most ancient silk fans have exquisite designs and various decorations. Shaped fans are very popular among ordinary people with a double-sided single color -- gold or blue porcelain -- that come in various shapes, like a full moon, cashew or hexagon. The fan handles are usually made of mottle bamboo and brown bamboo, as well as ivory. As for the shape of the silk fan, the full moon is most popular, followed by the hexagon, octagon, polygon, palm leaf and phoenix leaf. The Chinese flowering apple, U-shape and quincunx are also common shapes. On the cover of a silk fan are flowers and birds, fish and bugs, landscapes, figure of Buddha, as well as embroideries. Chinese embroidery had already been popular in the Song Dynasty (960-1127).

Rattan Fan: Rattan is a trailing plant with a soft texture, which comes in several varieties, such as white rattan, red rattan and purple rattan. The handicraftsmen of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) used the thin and withered rattan to weave the fan cover, which is extremely durable.

Wheat Straw Fan: It is prevalent in Zhejiang Province. According to a folk custom in Zhuji, if a young man falls in love with his lady, he will receive a beautiful fan of wheat straw when the summer approaches.

Bone Folding Fan: It is made of the buffalo rib and is mainly produced in Suzhou, Changzhou, Jiangxi and Guangzhou. After skiving, sawing, digging, blanching, shaping, carving and polishing, the bone looks exactly like ivory.

Bamboo Fan: It is usually woven of thin bamboo strips from the surface of a mountain. When the fan is finished, it is as smooth as silk. It can be square, round or hexagonal in shape, and usually acquires a reddish hue after five or six years. The bamboo fan is also produced in Qingshen County of Sichuan Province where it is called the "green bamboo fan." There is another kind of bamboo fan that is relatively considered to be low-end and is woven of rough bamboo strips. This extremely durable and cheap fan is produced in northern Zhejiang and southern Anhui.

Palm-Leaf Fan: The palm leaf fan is always round, big and strong, with a long handle and pea green in color. Local people turn the leaf upside down and put weight on it to make it smooth. They then cut it into a round and hang brocade thread along the edge. The handle of the palm-leaf fan is the stem of the palm leaf, which is why it is called a natural handle -- albeit a very rough one. Other materials like bamboo, ivory and hawksbill are also used to make exquisite handles, which are decorated with butterfly laces. These two kinds of fans are both called "punka" or "palm-leaf fan." The palm-leaf fan has been very popular among people because it is inexpensive and portable.

Portable Fan: The portable fan, also called the "mini fan," can be folded and is also portable. One kind of the portable fan has an iron handle, whose fan frame is made of pressed sheets of iron painted with colored lacquer; its surface is made of colorful paper and is very cheap. Another kind of fan has a wooden or bamboo handle, which uses colorful paper and aromatic wood as the cover.

Silk Dancing Fan: Most silk dancing fans are used for drama and dancing and are half silk or silk. The frame of the fan is mainly made of bamboo, sandalwood or cow bone. The cover is always made of various kinds of silk with flower and grass patterns that are sometimes adorned with a flashing aluminum sheet. Some of them are decorated with silk lace along the edge and are mostly used by women.

Hat Fan: The hat fan is used to keep cool in the summer when half-opened and as a sunshade when completely opened. It has good ventilation, is durable, easy to fold and has comes in many varieties.

Hanging Fan: It is also known as the "screen fan" and is usually hung on the wall or put in the sitting room for decoration. The frame is 60 to 70 cm long, and is actually a large folding fan. The Hangzhou Wangxingji Fan Manufacturing Plant once produced a huge screen fan named "Panorama of the West Lake in Hangzhou," which has a side length of 2.6 meters, measures around 10 square meters when unfolded and weighs 16 kilograms. The frame of the fan is made of top-grade wood with the 10 famous views of the West Lake dotting the two sides. Sixteen pieces of brown paper make up the whole fan cover. This is probably China's largest folding fan.

Chinese calligraphy (Brush calligraphy) is an art unique to Asian cultures. Shu (calligraphy), Hua (painting), Qin (a string musical instrument), and Qi (a strategic boardgame) are the four basic skills and disciplines of the Chinese literati.

Regarded as the most abstract and sublime form of art in Chinese culture, "Shu Fa" (calligraphy) is often thought to be most revealing of one's personality. During the imperial era, calligraphy was used as an important criterion for selection of executives to the Imperial court. Unlike other visual art techniques, all calligraphy strokes are permanent and incorrigible, demanding careful planning and confident execution. Such are the skills required for an administrator / executive. While one has to conform to the defined structure of words, the expression can be extremely creative. To exercise humanistic imagination and touch under the faceless laws and regulations is also a virtue well appreciated.

By controlling the concentration of ink, the thickness and adsorptivity of the paper, and the flexibility of the brush, the artist is free to produce an infinite variety of styles and forms. In contrast to western calligraphy, diffusing ink blots and dry brush strokes are viewed as a natural impromptu expression rather than a fault. While western calligraphy often pursue font-like uniformity, homogeneity of characters in one size is only a craft. To the artist, calligraphy is a mental exercise that coordinates the mind and the body to choose the best styling in expressing the content of the passage. It is a most relaxing yet highly disciplined exercise indeed for one's physical and spiritual well being. Historically, many calligraphy artists were well-known for their longevity.

Brush calligraphy is not only loved and practiced by Chinese. Koreans and Japanese equally adore calligraphy as an important treasure of their heritage. Many Japanese schools still have the tradition of having a student contest of writing big characters during beginning of a new school year. A biannual gathering commemorating the Lanting Xu by Wang Xi Zhi (The most famous Chinese calligrapher in Jin dynasty, ) is said to be held ceremonially in Japan. There is a national award of Wang Xi Zhi prize for the best calligraphy artist. Not too long ago, Korean government officials were required to excel in calligraphy. The office of Okinawa governor still displays a large screen of Chinese calligraphy as a dominating decor.

In the West, Picasso and Matisse are two artists who openly declared the influence by Chinese calligraphy on their works.

An important part of the country's cultural heritage, the traditional Chinese painting is distinguished from Western art in that it is executed on xuan paper (or silk) with the Chinese brush, Chinese ink and mineral and vegetable pigments.

To attain proficiency in this branch of art calls for assiduous exercise, a good control of the brush, and a feel and knowledge of the qualities of xuan paper and Chinese ink.

Art of the Far East has long fascinated the Western world. To appreciate the beauty of the art and culture, one should have a basic understanding of Chinese cultural traditions and history. The purpose of this essay is to briefly describe the chronological progression of art history from the Bronze Age to the present day China.

Throughout China's long and turbulent history, many rulers attempted to conquer and unite the vast land mass stretching from the desolate deserts of the west to the Pacific Ocean of the east, from the Siberian steppes of the north to the tropical jungles of the south. Despite the successive fall and rise of empires, which brought upon, war, famine and death, these events did not subdue the creative power of artists and artisans, who slowly mastered the various styles of art works, including ceramics, metals, sculptures and paintings that would become uniquely Chinese.

The principal forms of traditional Chinese painting are hanging scroll, album of paintings, fan surface and long horizontal scroll. Hanging scrolls are both horizontal and vertical. They are mounted and hung on the wall. For an album of paintings the artist paints on a certain size of xuan paper, then binds a number of paintings into an album, convenient for storage. The surface of both folding fans and round fans is painted. Before people had electric fans or air-conditioning, they used fans made of bamboo strips pasted with paper or silk. Artists painted the fan's surface as recreation. In time this developed into a form of painting that has been handed down to the present. Folding fans, usually made of paper, are used by men, while round fans, generally of silk, are used by women. When artists paint on the silk, the fan appears fine and elegant. The long horizontal scroll is also called a hand scroll. It is less than fifty centimetres high, but several to a hundred metres long. Pictures on long horizontal scrolls are not restricted as to time, whether seasons or decades. A hundred or a thousand human figures can be portrayed in one painting. After being mounted, it can be appreciated section by section. Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival (Qingming Festival, when Chinese people visit ancestral tombs, falls on April 5 or 6 each year) is a famous horizontal scroll from the Song Dynasty (960 -1279). The painting is 52.5 centimetres long.

The technique of traditional Chinese painting is divided into two major styles: meticulous (gongbi) and freehand (xieyi). Meticulous style requires great care and grace; the strict composition has fine elaboration. The effect is highly decorative. Freehand style generalizes shapes and displays rich brushwork and ink technique. It is easier for beginners, hence this book introduces the techniques of freehand painting, covering brush techniques and the use of ink and colour.

Lines play a decisive role in the formation of images in traditional Chinese painting, and the variations in lines are, in the main, determined by the method of using the brush. Consequently, in learning the basic techniques of traditional Chinese painting, you should first grasp the basic techniques of using the brush. For instance, you need to pay attention to how you hold the brush, to start a stroke, continue it and come to an end, how you move your brush quickly or slowly, lightly or heavily, and how you vary lifting or pressing your brush. In general, the brush can be divided into three parts: tip, belly and root. Their properties and functions differ from one another. Sometimes you paint with the tip of the brush, as light as gossamer on the paper. Sometime^ you press the root of the brush heavily on the paper. Sometimes you use the belly of the brush to bring out charms full of vitality. There are also times you use several parts of the brush in one stroke. This depends entirely on how flexibly you use your brush to present an object. If you succeed, your lines will be vivid and forceful, and you will bring out the spiritual characteristics of the object you're portraying.

The use of the brush in freehand painting allows for a full range of variations.

You should paint flexibly and freely. Do not mechanically copy strokes, or your painting will be stagnant and insignificant. How can you make your painting unconstrained? To begin with, you should observe carefully physical and spiritual changes in objects and the state of mind you intend to present, then you have a clear conception of what you wish to paint. When you paint in this way, your painting will be vivid, interesting and lifelike.

There is a saying in Chinese about having a picture of bamboo in your mind. It means that before an artist paints, he must carefully observe the growth and shape of the bamboo and have them clearly in mind. Then in painting the bamboo will be finished at one go and depicted vividly.

In freehand painting you should pay attention to how you hold the brush. Do not move your fingers only. It is important to coordinate them with your wrist, elbow and shoulder. You should practise until you are able to paint with your wrist suspended. Thus you may paint with ease the longest line, the roundest circle, and bamboo poles or willow twigs several feet long.

Ink occupies an exceedingly important position in traditional Chinese painting, whether it is figure painting, landscape painting or flower-and-bird painting, pure line drawing, ink-and-wash, light colouring or heavy colouring. Black is the main colour of traditional Chinese painting, and black has five shades (see p. 10). Th.e use of ink involves four processes: outlining showing the shades and texture of rocks and mountains by light ink stroke, applying dots and colouring. In the use of ink you should stress that "colour does not impair ink" and "colour does not destroy the shape." Images are primary. Brushwork and ink depict the images, and colours only enrich them. You should also understand the relationship between water and ink. What gives ink-and-wash paintings their unique flavour is that they make use of darkness or lightness, density or dilution to present the light and colour possessed by various objects, especially the particular effect formed between water, ink and unprocessed xuan paper. Even a painting executed a long, long time ago still looks refreshing and full of vitality today. Hence, in learning traditional Chinese painting, you should grasp the use of water and ink. If water and ink are well used, a painting is already halfway done. If they are not well used, it will not be a traditional Chinese painting.

In using ink, you must pay attention to the following points: 1) When grinding an ink stick on an ink slab, grind slowly rather than quickly, thickly rather than thinly. 2) Before painting, always wash the brush and ink slab, so as to prevent impurities or sediment in the ink. 3) Old ink, namely, ink ground the previous day, cannot be used to paint, especially for flower-and-bird painting in the meticulous style. Such ink easily oozes or becomes light when it comes into contact with water. This defect becomes more serious when painting on silk. Old ink sometimes can be used for landscape painting, but the painting will not be sufficiently bright and pure. Sometimes you may blend old and new ink for use.

The use of colour in traditional Chinese painting stresses the intrinsic colour of the object, varying the shades on the basis of the intrinsic colours. Very early in ancient China the principle was set forth: "Colours should be presented in accordance with the requirements of different categories of objects." Colour in Chinese painting is mostly used after finishing the basic modelling with brushwork and ink. It involves variations of brightness of the intrinsic colours, mutual contrast and harmonious relations between various intrinsic colours, coordination of brush-work and ink technique and consideration of colours' textural functions on paper and silk. Traditional Chinese painting does not depict the complexities of light and colour, but, all the same, it achieves truthful effect with exceedingly artistic appeal.

The method of colouring in traditional Chinese painting, stressing mainly the intrinsic colours, does not aim at naturalistic imitation. It proceeds from content and is subordinate to the requirements of the theme. It can exaggerate to the fullest extent and boldly change the intrinsic colours of the object, bringing out the theme prominently and expressing the artist's ideas and feelings to achieve ideal artistic effect and producing direct, pure, and bright aesthetic appeal.

We shall illustrate specific methods of colouring in the plates, so shall not explain further here. But beginners should be reminded to pay attention to one point: When you paint on raw xuan paper, you must pay attention to dryness and moist-ness, thickness and thinness of the ink. Generally, when the painting is moist, the colour looks heavier, and after the painting dries, the colour is lighter. Hence, when you paint, the colours should be slightly heavy. Then they will be appropriate after the painting has dried.