Chinese Agriculture

Boasting one of the world's most glaring agricultural civilizations, China's agriculture began in the remote antiquity when there was still no written history.

Unearthed in Li County of Central China's Hunan Province, these relics of ancient rice, currently collected in the Hunan Archeology Institute, were planted during the Neolithic age, proving that China was one of the earliest countries to grow rice in the world, with a history of at least 8,000 years.

In one of the ancient Chinese legends, there is a story of Shen Nong Shi (also known as the Red Emperor or Yan Emperor) concerning the origin of agriculture. Before Shen Nong Shi, people ate reptiles, little animals, mussels, and wild vegetables. As the population gradually increased, food gradually became more insufficient, thereby creating a desperate need to explore new means of food.

Shen Nong Shi tasted all kinds of herbals, even poison, to finally select the grains that could be eaten by people. Later, he also studied the climate and invented some farm tools, which resulted the appearance of husbandry in China.

While the legend leaves behind some clues about when agriculture originated in China, modern archeology has provided more abundant and reliable materials about the origin and the condition of Chinese agriculture. So far, there have been thousands of discoveries of agricultural sites during the Neolithic age all across China, especially along the Yellow River (Huanghe) and Yangtze River. Chinese agriculture can be traced back to about 10,000 years ago, and the primitive agriculture was very advanced about seven or eight thousand years ago.

There are three major centers where agriculture first appeared worldwide: West Asia, Central and South America, and East Asia (mainly referring to China). With its own characteristics, Chinese agriculture also established its own system. Of all the advantages China had for centuries over the rest of the world, one of the greatest may have been the ability to sustain its large and growing population through agricultural technology. With only about 10 percent of China's land is suitable for agriculture, so farming efficiency has been a concern as population increases.

The development of Chinese agriculture can be generally divided into six stages:

The first is the rudimentary stage, which ranged from about 4,000 to 10,000 years ago in the Neolithic age. During this time, Chinese agriculture was developed on the basis of plucking and picking as well as hunting and fishing. The emergence of agriculture laid a solid foundation for the development of human civilization.

The second is the primary stage, covering the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties (about 2100 BC to 771 BC), during which China invented metal smelting technology (process in which metal is separated from ore by melting). Bronze farm tools began to be used, irrigation projects began to be built, and in general, agricultural technology had some burgeoning development.

The third stage spans the time during the Spring and Autumn and the Warring State periods (770-221BC), when intensive and meticulous farming appeared. Highlighted by the invention of smelting iron, Chinese society, politics, technology, and culture experienced substantial improvements during this era. The mass use of iron farming tools and animal power also propelled the development of agriculture.

The fourth stage is the period from the Qin and Han dynasties to the Northern and Southern dynasties (221BC-589AD), when intensive and meticulous farming technology became mature in the dry land in North China. A set of agricultural technologies, including furrowing, harrowing, and leveling land, was established, while a multiple of large-scale and sophisticated farming tools were also invented. An agricultural encyclopedia titled Qi Min Yao Shu (Important Arts for People's Welfare) by famous agronomist Jia Sixie, summarizing previous agricultural experiences, also appeared in this period.

The fifth stage spans through dynasties from the Sui, Tang, and Song to the Yuan (581-1368), when paddy field intensive cultivation appeared. During this period, China's economic center shifted from the North to the South, and various paddy field farming tools were invented and distributed. Cotton was gradually more widespread. A lot of agricultural books appeared, while ways of using land also increased. Agriculture experienced substantive improvements both in North and South China.

The sixth stage is the advanced phase of the intensive cultivation from the Ming Dynasty to the mid-Qing Dynasty (1368-1840). At this time, the gap between the growing population and relatively scarcer land became increasingly prominent. As a result, the intensive and meticulous farming was even more sophisticated. The new crops from America were also introduced to China, greatly affecting China's crop structure. The diversified kinds of crops and multiple-harvest mode became popular across most of the country.

After the founding of the People's Republic of China (1949), Chinese agriculture has achieved even more significant progress, characterized by utilizing more modern technologies. With only seven percent of the world's cultivated land, China has to feed one-fifth of the world's population. In the agricultural sci-tech sphere, China has been constantly narrowing its gap with the advanced countries. The contribution rate of scientific and technological progress to China's agriculture has increased from 20 percent in 1949 to 42 percent. The agricultural sci-tech departments have made much progress in bio-technology, new and high technology and basic research, and the cultivation of plant cells and tissues, anther culture, haploid breeding and the research on its application have reached the world's advanced level. Bilinear hybrid rice, hybrid corn breeding and multi-crop planting technologies featuring intensive cultivation have reached or approached the world's advanced level. In addition, an important breakthrough has been made in the research of making use of the advantages of hybrid beans.

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Chinese Machinery

As one of the earliest countries to apply machinery, China boasts a lot of unique inventions like the compass vehicle, the seismograph, and the incense burner with their respective characteristics on using power and mechanical structural design.

Metallurgy and the development of machinery

A 6,000-year-old stone axe

Ancient metallurgy in China attained very high achievements very early. The bronze ware during the Shang and Zhou dynasties (about 1600BC to 221BC) are characterized by their unique vigorous and firm style. A bronze sword unearthed in Northwest China's Gansu Province, one of the earliest bronze ware ever found in China, was produced at least 4,800 years ago.

Roughly processed primitive tools for scratching, hacking, smashing, and drilling first appeared in China 400,000 to 500,000 years ago. The use of grinding in making tools appeared 40,000 to 50,000 years ago, contributing to sharper blades of the stoneware. Besides, the blades of the stoneware from that time vary in shape from single and double blades to convex, concave, and round blades.

Bronze arrowhead

The earliest invention in machinery came about 28,000 years ago when the bow and arrow were invented. The potter's wheel was invented somewhere in the period between eight millennium BC and 2,800 BC. Farm tools appeared approximately from 6,000 BC to 5,000 BC. Besides the more familiar tools like the stone axe and stone sword, there were also the stone hoe, stone scoop, stone sickle, mussel shell sickle, bone sickle, and bone thresher. On the stone axe and stone sword, there were already intentionally grinded holes.

In the time prior to the Xia Dynasty (about 21st to 16th century BC) and during the Xia Dynasty, the wooden wheel without spoke and the one with spokes successively appeared. Delicately double-wheeled carts appeared during the Shang (about 16th century BC to 11th century BC) and West Zhou (about 1100-771BC) dynasties, while water vehicles like dugout canoe and rafts appeared even earlier.

Zenghou Yi Bronze Plate

At the end of the Neolithic period, people in China could already use stone and clay molds to create some simple tools and weapons. With some significant improvements in handicraft and skills in the Shang Dynasty, the bronze ware culture at the time was brilliant. The bronze casting technology, represented by the mighty 875-kilo Sima Wu Ding (an ancient cooking and ceremonial vessel) as well as the delicate Zenghou Yi Bronze Plate, was very highly sophisticated.

The time from the Spring and Autumn Period to the Wei Dynasty (770BC-265AD) witnessed rapid development in ancient machinery. Ironware and pig iron casting technology began to appear during the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476BC). The emergence of steel accelerated the transition of Chinese society from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. In the middle of the Western Han Dynasty (206BC-24AD), cast wares that were as thin as three to five millimeters appeared.

A Qin soilder shooting a crossbow, which was the most accurate weapon at the time.

The crossbow, which once greatly boosted the strength of the invincible Qin troops, first appeared in the Spring and Autumn Period. By the Han Dynasty (206BC-220), the precision and the flatness of the device were noticeable. The Han crossbows were divided into eight categories, demonstrating the manufacturing standardization that was primarily established in China early in the Han Dynasty. The craftsmen's name was engraved on each of the crossbow.

A Qin soilder shooting a crossbow, which was the most accurate weapon at the time.

Kao Gong Ji , prevailing in the Warring States Period (475-221BC), was the earliest extant professional treatise on craftsmanship. The book covered a wide range of subjects such as the manufacturing method of wheels, the elasticity of bows, and the velocity and stability of arrows. Various ships, including three- or four-storied ones, abounded in the Han Dynasty, while some were equipped with a stern rudder and an efficient advancing tool - the scull (an oar placed over the boat's rear part to propel the boat). The incense burner in the Western Han Dynasty was skillfully designed. No matter how the ball-shaped burner rolled, the part in the center where the incense was burned could remain horizontal.

The consistent development of transportation tools and the emergence of a complex drive structure

The bronze cart and horses

The bronze cart and horses excavated in 1980 in the Qin Shihuang Mausoleum (site of the Terracotta Warriors) of Xi'an in North China's Shaanxi Province represented the development level of casting technology, metal processing, and assembly skills at the time. The Jiligu cart (which had a group of decelerating gear insides) and the compass vehicle appeared after the Eastern Han Dynasty.

The compass vehicle produced by Ma Jun in the Three Kingdoms period (220-280) not only applies a gear-driven system, but also an automatic clutch device, highlighting its improvement over the Jiligu cart. The invention of the automatic clutch device also demonstrates the considerable development of a complex drive structure.

Gears and gear clusters in various shapes and of different uses, highlighted by ratchet wheels (wheels that are toothed in a way that ensures motion in a certain direction) and especially the highly accurate gear cluster used in

The armillary sphere (hun tian yi)

astronomical apparatuses, abounded in the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220). The armillary sphere (three-dimensional map of the celestial sphere) and the seismograph invented by the Chinese scientist Zhang Heng in the year 132 best exemplify the achievements in transmission.

The textile technology and weaving machine experienced significant achievements in the Han Dynasty. By the Three Kingdoms period, Ma Jun enhanced the weaving machine, greatly improving working efficiency. Meanwhile, he also invented a kind of waterwheel, which could continuously lift water from a lower place to a higher place.

The plow in the Han Dynasty had moldboards, which could turn over and smash the soil. The animal-dray seed plough appeared during the reign of Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty; it is recorded that one such plough could plant more than a hectare each day. One of the excavated iron lions founded in the Five Dynasties (907-960) is as heavy as 40 tons.

The silver box in the Tang Dynasty

The machinery manufacturing had attained very significant achievements by the end of the Tang Dynasty (618-907). The Tang silver box unearthed in Xi'an, the capital of Shaanxi Province and the capital of the Tang Dynasty when it was known as Chang'an, demonstrated a high precision of the machinery at the time, with the lid and the box very accurately conjugated together.

Water vehicles also experienced substantial improvement during the period. The swift boat invented by Zu Chongzhi (429-500) was claimed to be able to cruise 100 li (50 kilometers) per day. Ran by manpower, some of the military boats at the time were equipped with as many as 160 oars.

The water-powered machinery saw significant improvement in the Tang Dynasty with the improvement of Chinese waterwheels. By the end of the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279), the water-driven large-scale spinning wheel appeared, while the hand-driven spinning machine at the time was among the world's most advanced.

Zi Ren Yi Zhi , written by Xue Jingshi in the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), summarized the author's own experiences in carpentry, and recorded the spinning machine and vehicles at the time. The book is known as a classic in wood machinery production.

Zheng He's Fleet

At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the shipbuilding industry was very advanced. The fleet that Zheng He used in his seven famous voyages was the strongest and largest in the world at the time. His ship, the largest ocean vehicle at the time, was 137 meters long with twelve sails as well as an 11-meter-long tiller (a device connecting the rudder to the steering wheel).

By the mid-Ming Dynasty, the wood sailing vessel could already march on against the wind, and steer in all wind directions.

Features

However, the machinery products in ancient China, such as the large-scale and heavy steel anchors, as well as small and tiny needles, were mainly handmade.

Piston Bellows

The piston bellows (a device to blast air into furnaces) that were prevalent at the time appeared during the Ming Dynasty, which was a great improvement from the wood fans in the Song and Yuan dynasties, and greatly enhanced the blasting facilities for metal melting.

The advancement of machinery also promoted academic researches. In 1627, Wang Zheng translated and published a book introducing the development of machinery in the West. Some Western inventions like the chime clock were also brought to China. From 1634 to 1637, Song Yingxing wrote and then published Tian Gong Kai Wu (Exploration of the Works of Nature), which recorded many advanced technologies and scientific inventions, reflecting the development of the agricultural and handcraft industries at the time.

During the reign of Emperor Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), the palace also produced a big clock with distinctive Chinese features. Chinese watchmakers produced a lot of novel watches and clocks in the Ming and Qing dynasties. Guangzhou in South China, and Suzhou, Nanjing, and Yangzhou of East China were cities famous for their watches at the time.

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Ancient Chinese military thoughts

Based on the reasonable understanding of wars and military problems in the slavery and feudalism societies, ancient Chinese military thoughts experienced a consistent development in the past thousands of years with the advancement of the society.

Burgeoning Period

China founded the slavery society in the 21st or 22nd century BC, and war has since become the highest form of struggles among different classes. People's understanding of wars remained in the rudimentary period, and the central content of the military thoughts was to carry out wars under the guidance of God's will.

In the name of going on punitive expeditions against those who "disobeyed God's will" the slave owners initiated looting wars against the other nations, or suppressed the resistance from the slaves. With augury, the so-called heaven's intention was used. By both cruel punishments and abundant rewards, soldiers were directed to fight in the field. The way of war was frontal fighting.

By the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), the vehicle soldiers on chariots were the main body of troops. The commands required action unity and rigid management. The idea directed the military confrontations in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties as well as the Spring & Autumn and the Warring States periods (about 21st century-221BC).

After many military practices during the period, people gradually summarized some basic notions about war like making moves according to the specific situation, acting according to one's own ability, that a larger troop could defeat the smaller one, and the stronger could defeat the weaker. It is said that some military works appeared in the Western Zhou Dynasty (11th century-771BC), which was lost later, but some fragments were included in later military works like Zuo Zhuan (Spring and Autumn Annals), and Sun Zi Bing Fa (Sun Zi's Art of War).

Rapid Developing Period

From the 8th to 3rd century BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), Chinese society gradually turned from a slavery system to a feudalistic one. The development of productivity and the change of social system caused changes in the training of soldiers and the improvement of weapons, which in turn led to changes in the military system and ways of war.

To adapt to the new needs, professional generals appeared; strategists and books on the art of wars representing the interest of the newly emerged landlord class also abounded. The celebrated Sun Zi Bing Fa signified the military thoughts maturity of the governing feudal class. As the earliest comprehensive and systematic military theoretic work, the book unveiled a series of laws and regular patterns of wars, built the infrastructure for Chinese military thoughts, guided the military actions and military theory researches in the later ages, and gained a huge reputation internationally.

According to Sun Zi Bing Fa , tactics must be deliberately used in military confrontations, and the most ideal ending of war for brilliant strategists is to defeat the enemy without fighting. The book broke the fatality notion of the slavery society, and the victory of a war did not hinge on gods or ghosts. Instead, the party in the war who knew one's own situation and that of the enemy would never lose. Meanwhile, the book also pointed out that the factors that decide the war include politics, economy, good timing, geographical convenience, and harmonious human relations and so on. Thus, the book said, the feudal ruling class must enlighten their politics and follow the wishes of the people. These ideas were also highly valued by other peer military works.

During the Warring States Period (475-221BC), people furthered their understanding about war. For instance, Wu Zi , said to by strategist Wu Qi, explored the essence and origin of war, classified wars into several types, and raised different solutions for different types of wars.

Sun Bin Bing Fa (Sun Bin Art of War) written by Sun Bin, suggested that wars should end the social chaos, and defeating the enemy by a surprise action and momentum of war were emphasized. All these views were the inheritance and development of Sun Zi's military thoughts.

Enriching and Improving Period

From the end of the third century BC to the 13th century, China witnessed many dynasties including the Qin, Han, Jin, Sui, Tang, Song, and Yuan. In this long historical period, the military thoughts of the pre-Qin Dynasty still played an important guiding role. Meanwhile, with the development of social economics, politics, culture, and wars, military thoughts experienced substantial further enrichment and improvement.

In the term of classification of war, there were wars unifying the territory of the feudal dynasties, many large-scale peasant and national uprisings, and fights among the domestic local warlords for the dominance of the central government.

In the term of the development of troops, arms of services and weapons experienced noticeable changes. Calvary as an individual branch of the army appeared, and the navy participated in more wars, which required the commanders to strengthen the coordination and cooperation among the infantry, cavalry, and navy. As a result, the use of tactics and strategies as well as the art of commanding both experienced substantial development.

Innumerous wars also produced a lot of strategists and generals, as well as many books on art of war summarizing the experiences of military confrontations.

Emperor Qin Shihuang's military measures of building the Great Wall and large-scale roads and guarding the border with a large number of forces were very influential for frontier defense in later ages.

In the famous battle between the Chu and Han states, Zhang Liang, the military counselor advised Liu Bang, who later became the first emperor of the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD), to conform to the will of the people, disintegrate the enemy, strive for more allies, and isolate Xiang Yu, king of the Chu State. Liu Bang followed the advice and finally won the war.

In the counterattack war against the Huns in the Western Han Dynasty (206BC-24AD), famous generals Wei Qing and Huo Qubing developed the tactics and strategies of using large-scale cavalries in a creative way.

Liu Tao (The Six Principles of War), a noted military book, raised the notions of rehabilitation and recuperation, cherishing the wealth of the people in the light of frequent wars, and also discussed coordinated fighting with the integration of infantry and cavalry.

San Lue (Three Tactics), another book on war of art, further expressed the discrimination thought that "the weak can also beat the strong." He also pointed out the superlative rulers must extensively admit various talents, and attach importance to the influence of the people and soldiers.

From the Han to the Sui Dynasties, there were many large-scale wars in which troops from Huanghe River (Yelloe River) drainage area marched southward to the Yangtze River. Most of the wars were coordinated fights involving infantry, cavalry, and navy, amongst which the most noted ones include the Chibi War at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220), the war that the Jin Dynasty (265-420) fought against the Wu Kingdom (222-280), the Feishui War in the Jin Dynasty, and the war in which the Sui Dynasty (581-618) defeated the Chen Dynasty (557-589). In all of these wars, political and military struggles were combined; stratagem, decision-making, and the commanding all had a very high level.

From the Song Dynasty (960-1279) to the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), many governments of different ethnic groups co-existed and opposed each for a long time. War frequented. With the development of productivity and the needs of war, firearms and complicated equipments appeared and exerted great influence on the wars.

The nomadic ethnic groups built several regimes in North China, and all of them were known for their cavalry troops. The most prominent of them was the Mongolians who built a system that combined military and herding. The advantages of cavalry were fully elaborate. The high ingenuity and ability to quickly learn from the advanced technology of the enemy all contributed to their success in defeating all the other regimes at the time in China.

The abovementioned wars and military books have greatly developed and enriched ancient China's military thoughts.

The period of gradual advance in the conflicts of conformism and innovation

From the end of the 14th century to the 1940s, feudalism gradually became corrupted with continuous large-scale peasant uprisings, national insurgences, and also foreign invasions. With advancement of the firearms and introduction of some advanced weapons in this period, independent navy, artillery, engineering corps, and some other technological arms of services appeared. Furthermore, the changes of the enemy also led to changes in building the army and commanding.

In the term of military thoughts, on one hand, the conservative notion, which focused only on defending the cities and strongholds, strengthened, while on the other hand, highly innovative military thoughts epitomized from war practices also appeared in many books on the art of war. Ji Xiao Xin Shu and Lian Bing Shi Ji , two military books by the famous anti-Japanese general Qi Jiguang, are the representatives of the innovative thoughts.

Ancient Chinese military thoughts are a summarization of thousands of wars throughout Chinese history. Its rich content, as a legacy from the Chinese ancestors, is an important component of brilliant Chinese culture. The military thoughts of the modern times or even the current time have learned much from it.

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China's Intangible Cultural Heritage

China's "intangible cultural heritage" should be better protected under moves being made to preserve endangered art. This is according to State Council member Chen Zhili, who said in June that nine ministries and departments would launch joint efforts to safeguard certain forms of heritage.

Minister of Culture Sun Jiazheng also stressed at a two-day working conference on heritage protection in Beijing that local culture departments should undertake preservation in good faith instead of with the sole goal of fueling local tourism or enhancing publicity.

"Protecting intangible culture in China is of great importance to maintaining a diversified world," Chen said. "It's also part of China's efforts to safeguard the nation's cultural identity."

The demolition of Beijing's old city walls, she said, was a blunder that erased the city's unique style and diversity. "It's the most critical time for China to preserve both tangible and intangible cultural heritage," Chen said, as historical villages in remote areas disappear and numerous bland buildings take their place.

Such heritage protection is drawing increasing attention from China's senior leadership.

"Over the next five years, the Chinese Government is to allocate 50 million yuan (US$6.1 million) to preserve Kunqu - an art form already on UNESCO's protection list," Ministry of Finance official Wang Jiaxin said at the two-day conference.

Wu Songs, Nuo Drama and Masks, Shuahai'er, Qingpu Filed Songs, Shadow Play, Yangliuqing New Year Pictures, Nanyin Music, Grand Songs of the Dong Ethnic Group, Ke Si, Su Embroidery, Women's Script, Xi'an Ancient Music, Nanjing Brocade Tang Tricolored Wuqiang Painting Shaolin Kungfu, Sichuan Opera, Papercuts, Naxi Music, Pingtan, Guqin, Kunqu, Muqam

Qinqiang

The other Chinese art form on UNESCO's list is Guqin, while Uygur Mukam, a centuries-old form of music from Northwest China's Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, is preparing to apply for recognition by the world body.

Since 2003, the Chinese Government has earmarked 46 million yuan (US$5.6 million) for a special project designed to preserve important cultural forms. But it has not yet been decided which cultural art forms are most in need of funds for protection.

Vice-Minister of Education Zhang Xinsheng urged at the conference that intangible cultural heritage should be covered in education for elementary and middle school students.

"Lessons such as geography, history, and Chinese literature need to give students an insight into intangible cultural heritage," Zhang said during the conference, which drew more than 130 delegates from provincial culture departments. He also demanded universities and colleges function as advisory bodies for cultural protection while institutions involved in art education should train people to practice endangered art forms.

Apart from the culture, finance, and education ministries, several other departments are expected to join the effort. Tong Mingkang, deputy chief of the State Administration of Cultural Heritage, called for museums across the country to play important roles in preserving endangered art. "The management of museums should be open-minded and they should improve their understanding of intangible cultural heritage," Tong said.

Folk Artists Key to Preserving Cultural Heritage

The Chinese Academy of Arts invited 30 folk artists to act as researchers in June, a move by the government seen as a big step towards the preservation of the country's "intangible cultural heritage." The 30 are experts in Chinese folk arts such as paper cutting, clay molding, kite making, and Tibetan tongka making (silk or satin scroll painting ).

These folk arts are part of the country's intangible cultural heritage, according to Minister of Culture Sun Jiazheng. Sun said that folk artists are important components of a country's intangible cultural heritage because they play an important role in ensuring its survival.

In a meeting that was held days after China's 3,000-year-old musical instrument, the guqin, was internationally recognized as a masterpiece by UNESCO, Sun said China urgently needed to rescue and preserve its intangible cultural heritage. He promised to give more support, including funding, to help intangible cultural heritage such as folklore and customs survive and develop.

Wang Wenzhang, president of the Chinese Academy of Arts, promised yesterday to take further measures to promote the works of these artists, such as holding exhibitions and setting up workshops for them. He said the academy plans to invite 70 additional folk artists within five years to become researchers.

System Building to Protect Intangible Heritage

Zhou Heping, deputy Culture Minister, said at a press conference in late April that China would set up a database and a detailed list of intangible cultural heritage at country, provincial, city, and county levels.

The country will gradually form a safeguarding system with Chinese characteristics to protect intangible cultural heritage.

Zhou added that in promoting traditional Chinese culture, the government has made many efforts and garnered significant achievements.

In August 2004, China joined the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage, becoming one of the few member countries included by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

According to Zhou, the General Office of the State Council had issued a document that gives some suggestions on the safeguarding of China's intangible cultural heritage and calls for the establishment of the said safeguarding system. This year the government will complete the first list of intangible cultural heritage at the county-level. After that, China will begin to enrich the lists at provincial, city, and county levels.

Link: Intangible Heritage

The Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage defines the intangible cultural heritage as the practices, representations, and expressions, as well as the knowledge and skills that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage. It is sometimes called living cultural heritage, and is manifested among other things in the following domains:

oral traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the intangible cultural heritage; performing arts; social practices, rituals, and festive events; knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe; traditional craftsmanship.

The intangible cultural heritage is transmitted from generation to generation, and is constantly re-created by communities and groups, in response to their environment, their interaction with nature, and their historical conditions of existence. It provides people with a sense of identity and continuity, and its safeguarding promotes, sustains, and develops cultural diversity and human creativity.

UNESCO has four major programs in the field of intangible cultural heritage:

Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity

Living Human Treasures

Endangered Languages

Traditional Music of the World

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Natural Heritage

The Great Wall

The Palace Museum

Mogao Grottoes

Peking Man Ruins

Qinshihuang's Mausoleum and Terracotta Warriors

Mount Taishan

Mount Huangshan

Jiuzhaigou

Huanglong

Summer Mountain Resort and Temples in Chengde

Confucian Temple, Mansion, Graveyard

Wulingyuan Scenic Area

Wudang Mountain

Lushan Mountain Scenic Area

Mount Lushan

Mount Emei Leshan Big Buddha

Dazu Rock Carvings

Classical gardens of Suzhou

Temple of Heaven in Beijing

Summer Palace in Beijing

Wuyi Mountain

Ancient City Lijiang

Ancient City Pingyao

City Site in State of Loulan

City Ruins of the Yuan Dynasty in Jining

Zhouyuan Site

Site of Taihe City

Site of Zhongshan Ancient City

Site of Yuwang City

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Chinese Zodiac & Calendar

In China, instead of asking your age, people may ask you questions like "what do you belong to?" Don't ever think that you are expected to answer like "I belong to the US". You are supposed to belong to one of twelve animals! (Those are mouse, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, rooster, dog, and pig.) It is not that weird as you have to follow the order of a mouse or a tiger. That is Chinese Zodiac. The Chinese Zodiac is based on a twelve year cycle --- each year being represented by an animal that imparts distinct characteristics to its year.

Many Chinese believe that the year of a person's birth is the primary factor in determining that person's personality traits, physical and mental attributes and degree of success and happiness throughout his lifetime. Actually, in China, this is just an alternative way to say how old you are.

Chinese astrology has a history of more than 3,000 years. Ancient Chinese people invented the 10 Heavenly Stems and 12 Earthly Branches for chronological purposes. However, since most people were illiterate, 12 animals were designated to symbolize the 12 Earthly Branches in order to be better remembered. These lucky animals are rat, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, rooster, dog and pig successively.

According to legend, many years ago Buddha summoned all the animals to a meeting in which he would designate the first 12 animals arriving,to be signs of a year respectively. On the night before the departure, cat notified his pal, rat, and they agreed that the one waking up first the next morning must awake the other so they can depart for the meeting together. However, rat broke his promise and arrived for the meeting alone. Then, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, rooster, dog and pig arrived one after the other. When cat woke up and hurried there, the meeting was over. It is said that is the reason why the cat kills rats.

Chinese astrology argues that one's personality profile can be revealed form one's birth time. However, Chinese zodiac is based on the year rather than in the month as in the western system. In China everybody knows which animal sign he or she is born under. Do you want to know which animal you are born under and check out your astrological path according to Chinese Zodiac? Read on to learn more.

The Chinese Calendar

Chinese New Year is the main holiday of the year for more than one quarter of the world's population. Although the People's Republic of China uses the Gregorian calendar for civil purposes, a special Chinese calendar is used for determining festivals. Various Chinese communities around the world also use this calendar. At right, a large dragon lantern glows at a festival for Chinese New Year at the Chiang Kai-shek Memorial. Taipei, Taiwan.

The beginnings of the Chinese calendar can be traced back to the 14th century B.C.E. Legend has it that the Emperor Huangdi invented the calendar in 2637 B.C.E.

The Chinese calendar is based on exact astronomical observations of the longitude of the sun and the phases of the moon. This means that principles of modern science have had an impact on the Chinese calendar.

Detailed Information: History | Rules | Nomenclature | Jieqi

Equatorial (left) and ecliptic (right) armillary spheres in the Imperial Observatory in Beijing made by the Jesuit missionary Ferdinand Verbiest, 1670

- 2000-year-old Almanac Found in Suizhou Hubei Province

- Chongzhen Lishu

- Shoushi Calendar

- Chinese Lunar Calendar

- Tibetan Wuhou Calendar -- a Unique Ethnic Minority Calendar

- Ten-month Solar Calendar of Yi Ethnic Minority

- Origins of the Solar Calendar

- Chuxiong Solar Calendar Cultural Park -- Symbol of the Yi Civilization

- Calendarian Achivements

- Calendar Making in Ancient China

- Solar Terms

- Chinese Calendar vs. Western Calendar

- Taichu Calendar

- Daming Calendar

- Dayan Calenar

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Religions & Beliefs

China is a country with a great diversity of religions, with over 100 million followers of the various faiths. The main religions Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism， although it is true to say that Confucianism is a school of philosophy rather than a religion.

Generally speaking, Chinese people do not have a strong religious inclination but despite this the three main faiths have had a considerable following. The fact that Confucianism is a philosophy rather than religion meant that it became the orthodox doctrine for Chinese intellectuals in the days of the feudalist society. However, these intellectuals did not stick to their doctrine as a believer clings to his belief. Someone summarized the true attitude of Chinese intellectuals as - they followed the teachings of Confucius and Mencius when they were successful but would turn to Taoism when they were frustrated.

Buddhism was introduced to China from India approximately in the 1st century AD, becoming increasingly popular and the most influential religion in China after the 4th century. Tibetan Buddhism, as a branch of Chinese Buddhism, is popular primarily in Tibet and Inner Mongolia. Now China has more than 13,000 Buddhist temples.

Many people say they are Buddhists yet have never read the sutras. Most people will say they believe in gods, destiny, fate, luck and an afterlife. Even so, on most occasions, rather than rely on prayer, people will make decisions all by themselves or resort to either family or friends for help. A visible human being is considered far more reliable than invisible gods or spirits.

China's indigenous Taoism, along with Shamanism, Eastern Orthodox hristianity and the Naxi people's Dongba religion. The Hui, Uygur, Kazak, Kirgiz, Tatar, Ozbek, Tajik, Dongxiang, Salar and Bonan peoples adhere to Islam; the Tibetan, Mongolian, Lhoba, Moinba, Tu and Yugur peoples, to Tibetan Buddhism (also known as Lamaism); and the Dai, Blang and Deang peoples to Theravada Buddhism. Quite a few Miao, Yao and Yi people are Christians. Religious Han Chinese tend to practice Buddhism, Christianity or Taoism.

Islam probably first reached China in the mid-7th century. The Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) witnessed the zenith of prosperity of Islam. Now China has more than 30,000 mosques. Catholic influence reached China several times after the seventh century, and Protestantism was introduced into China in the early 19th century. Now there are more than 4,600 Catholic churches and over 12,000 Protestant churches and over 25,000 other types of protestant places of worship in China.

Taoism probably took shape as a religion during the second century, based on the philosophy of Lao Zi (traditionally said to be born in 604 BC) and his work, the Dao De Jing (Classic of the Way and Virtue). China now has more than 1,500 Taoist temples.

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