Enamel filling: Through this interesting procedure, the cloisonne wears a colored wrap. Handicrafts specialists fill enamel glaze into lattices formed by fine-spun filigrees. Just one filling is not enough - the filigrees extrude, and the surface is dull. They have to fuse powdery glaze in the smelter at 800 degrees centigrade, then take the object out and repeat the process three or four times until its surface becomes smooth. Surface polishing: Seeking smooth surfaces, artisans polish articles three times with grit or charcoal. The work requires extreme care. Gilding: After acid pickling, fluid gold adds elegance and civility to a cloisonne piece. Today cloisonne technique is associated with the sculpture of wood, jade, ivory and lacquer. Cloisonne art is exported to many countries as a favorite medium for ornaments. Jade has a history in China of at least four thousands years. Unknown to some, jade is found contained within the development of religion and civilization, having moved from the use of decoration on to the others such as the rites of worship and burial. Although other materials like gold, silver and bronze were also used, none of these have ever exceeded the spiritual position that jade has acquired in peoples' minds - it is associated with merit, morality, grace and dignity. In the funeral objects of the people of the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC - 24 AD), for example, we can see only high officials were buried with jade articles. Jade has influenced all walks of life. In ancient times, people expressed abstract notions with concrete patterns of Chinese character, which were influenced by Taoism and Buddhism. Jade craftworks were among the most precious and luxurious ones; people wore and decorated rooms to indicate loyalty, elegance, beauty, and eternity. The most popular patterns were: peach (longevity), mandarin duck (love), deer (high official ranks), bat (blessing), fish (affluence), double phoenixes (thriving), bottle (safety), lotus (holiness), bamboo (lofty conduct), and fan (benevolence), etc. In Chinese, jade is pronounced as 'Yu', and most words related to moral include this word such as 'Unpolished jade never shines,' indicating that one cannot be a useful person if he is not educated. Jade also implied honor and conviction. Many girls in ancient times were also named with jade to reflect the love of their parents. One of the Four Beauties in Chinese history, Yang Yuhuan, the beloved concubine of Emperor Xuanzong in the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907), was their representative. Yang is her surname and her given name Yuhuan means simply 'jade ring'. People believed that jade was the expression of the most beautiful stone. A beautiful piece can be more valuable than fifteen cities and a man's life. Historic records tell of a story about a stanch man named Bian He who had a piece of jade called 'Heshi Bi' which was said to be the most priceless treasure in history. However, when Bian He discovered the piece, it was hidden under the veil of the coarse stone in which it laid. He did not dare to carve it but instead dedicated it to the King of State Chu. He never knew that he would pay two legs for his dedication, for the king did not know the real value of the jade and cut Bian He's legs off. He cried for three days and nights. Afterwards, the new king heard of him and wanted to see whether his jade was as precious as he said. When the jade was cut, all were startled by the delicate quality. Very soon, it became a national treasure and was called 'Heshi Bi'. So precious was the stone that it even became a source of conflict between the Qin State and Zhao State. Jadeite As early as the 16th century, Jadeite was believed to be a precious and hard jade with healing qualities for the human stomach and kidneys. Since it was brought into China during the early Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911), it had been doted on greatly. Jadeite contains an iron component which appears red, chromium that appears green, and many other colored types. Known as the 'king of jade', it is usually a more expensive type of jade. Nephrite Jade Nephrite's robustness is due to the fact it contains tremolite. It also can be divided into several sub-classifications according to color: white, grey, green, topaz, and black jade. In China, the most reputable jade producing area is Hetian in Xinjiang Province. Hetian jade is so hard that it can scratch glass. It has often been found in very huge pieces. An example of this is the huge jade hill on which the grand scene of Yu the Great leading people to control flood is elaborately carved. It was 5,350 kg weight (11,795 pounds) when it was completed. Now this artwork is displayed in the Forbidden City. Serpentine jade, or Xiu yu in Chinese, is mainly from Xiuyan County in Liaoning Province. Made of many different ingredients, it takes on various appearances: white, yellow, light yellow, pink, green, dark green, light green and so on. This type of jade is usually coloured in various shades of green. Usually serpentine jade is semi-transparent or even opaque like wax. Lantian jade is produced in Lantian County, north of Xian in Shaanxi Province. It was also among the most charming ancient jades, for its rigidity made it easier to be carved into decorations and jewelry by our ancestors. The hue is uneven in colors of yellow or light green. Nanyang County in Henan Province is famous for its abundant Nanyang jade. The ore district is located on an isolated 200 meter high hill, called Dushan Hill (thus its other name of 'Dushan jade'). It is distinctive for its whimsicality. Among the Nanyang jade artworks, you will find rare purple, blue and red ones. Appreciation and Maintenance Experts believe that, although more expensive, diamonds and gold cannot be compared with jade - jade is animated with a soul. They often buy to collect their favorite jade artworks, while people with little knowledge of jade may buy coarse works. To obtain a real and choice jade article, you should take pains to learn and appreciate it. The criteria lie in the brightness of color and luster, compactness of inner structure, and the delicacy of the craftwork. For example, nephrite creates an oily luster and jadeite creates a vitreous luster. Tiny cracks can lower the value of jade; on real jade, air bubbles cannot be seen; the more lenitive the higher quality of jade, and so on. Having purchased a jade article is just half the process of collecting. Jade is like a child that needs constant care. Enthusiasts need to work more to maintain this artwork, or blemishes may appear. First, avoid bumping on hard surfaces as jade is delicate. Although sometimes a crack cannot be seen by the naked eye, the interior structure may have been damaged. As time goes on, it will appear and reduce the value of the piece. Second, protect jade articles from dust or greasy dirt. If tainted, they must be scrubbed with a soft brush and light suds and washed with clean water. Third, when left unused it is best to store the jade in a case or box to protect it from being bumped. Fourth, jade should be kept away from perfume, perspiration or chemicals. The brightness of jade risks corrosion, especially emerald and other high quality jade, so it is better to clean it with a soft cloth after wearing it. Fifth, do not expose jade to sunlight for a long time, or it may expand and the quality will change slightly. Finally, jade has certain water content so keep it in an area of humidity to protect it from over-drying. Emanating a serene luster, lacquer ware is another exquisite Chinese craft. The earliest users of lacquer, Chinese people have enjoyed its beauty since the Neolithic Age. A wood-based red lacquer bowl made 6,000 - 7,000 years ago unveiled the history of lacquer techniques. Early pieces were in simple red and black. During the Warring States Period (476 BC - 221 BC) to the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220), lacquer ware popularity peaked demonstrating exquisite techniques and vivid patterns such as animals and clouds. Lacquer relics excavated in the Mawangdui Han Tombs which have a history of over 2,000 years, amaze visitors with their pearl-like sheen. The Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties were also prosperous periods during which time more than 400 varieties of lacquer ware were used as common implements and as ornaments. Fuzhou lacquer wares, firm yet lightweight, are resistant to heat, acid, alkali and electricity. Pieces made in Yangzhou are famous for their elegance and delicacy and the unique creative technique - whorl filling (Dianluo in Chinese) which takes shells as material, processes them into sheets as thin as cicada wings, and pastes them carefully onto lacquer bodies. With this process, people even inset treasures like crystal, jade, pearls and coral onto lacquer furniture, tea wares, and writing brushes. Pingyao, an ancient town in Shanxi Province, produces lacquer ware which features the luster polished by craftsmen's palms. This simple but radiant artwork ranks as the most refined. Porcelain, also called 'fine china', featuring its delicate texture, pleasing color, and refined sculpture, has been one of the earliest artworks introduced to the western world through the Silk Road. The earliest porcelain ware was found made of Kaolin in the Shang Dynasty (16th - 11th century BC), and possessed the common aspects of the smoothness and impervious quality of hard enamel, though pottery wares were more widely used among most of the ordinary people. Anyway it was the beginning of porcelain, which afterwards in the succeeding dynasties and due to its durability and luster, rapidly became a necessity of daily life, especially in the middle and upper classes. They were made in the form of all kinds of items, such as bowls, cups, tea sets, vases, jewel cases, incense burners, musical instruments and boxes for stationary and chess, as well as pillows for traditional doctors to use to feel one's pulse. The development of porcelain in the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220) began to accelerate and before long the artworks were introduced westward. Celadon (like the color of jade) and black porcelain wares were the dominant types at that time. Styles of porcelain had formed and differed based on regions by then. The Yue Kiln in Zhejiang Province, which has enjoyed a good reputation for over 2,000 years up to now, produced delicate and hard celadon porcelain; while the De Kiln became the earliest kiln that baked black porcelain. During the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907), a large number of porcelain wares were in daily use having been substituted for the ones made of gold, silver, jade and other materials. With export, Chinese patterns on these wares also took on more exotic appeal. The Yue and De kiln of Zhejiang Province had features that were the most popular ones, and another one, Xing kiln in Hebei Province was greatly prized for its white porcelain as 'white like snow'. Kilns baking porcelain for the royalty sprang up producing elegant and dainty works. Stepping into the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279), a variety of genres of porcelain appeared and it became a fashion that people showed great interest in purchasing and collecting certain wares suitable to their tastes. Ru, Ding, Ge, Jun and the official kilns had been the representatives of that age. Official kilns advocated concise patterns of decoration; Ru kiln in Hebei Province added treasured agate into glaze so that the color and texture appeared to be uniquely daintily creamy and could be compared with jade. Henan Province had two famous kilns named Jun and Ding kilns. Since the reign of Emperor Huizong who liked art appreciation, porcelain of Jun kiln was kept exclusively for the royal family and common people had no right to collect it no matter how much money they possessed. Since the artisans made their porcelain wares separately, there was no repetition among decorative patterns and colors. Thus this made each porcelain product more precious in its own right. Ding kiln boasted its white porcelain which has a texture as delicate as that of ivory with an adornment of black and purple glaze. Distinctive from the other four kilns which stressed color, this one was quite good at engraving and printing flower patterns. While the Ge Kiln produced porcelain articles with various grains and produced an amount of artworks greater than those of the other four. Well developed in the Yuan Dynasty (1271 - 1368), the blue and white porcelain (Qinghua Ci), in the main stream of porcelain, was the stylish artistic ware in the Ming and Qing Dynasties and promoted this period to be the most prolific in the field of feudal art. First it painted on the basic body with brush natural cobalt which would be turned blue after being in the forge. Set off by the white glaze and covered by the other level of clear glaze, the blue flowers and other patterns showed their comely charm and were widely welcomed among both refined and popular tastes. With the diversity of cobalt, theme, and style of painting, the blue and white porcelains differed constantly, each being unique. As we know, the features of porcelain lie in texture of basic body, color of glaze, decorative pattern, shape and style, while porcelain at that time had sublimed to be at the most elegant. The familiar rose porcelain was another highlight that appeared during the reign of Emperor Kangxi (1653 - 1722). The finished article appears more stereoscopic, colorful, gentle and clean. Nearly all the refined colored pigments were utilized like ancient purple, magenta, ochre, emerald, and so on. Through the development of 4,000 years, now it is still a brilliant art that attracts many people's interest. Collect your favorite porcelain article and place it in your room to enjoy the pleasure of it. The Porcelain Capital, Jingdezhen in Jiangxi Province which has been praised for thousands of years, will be certain to satisfy your esthetic appetite. Pottery may be the oldest artwork of human beings. As far back as the Neolithic Age (more than 8,000 years ago), people began mixing clay and water then baking it until it held its shape. Ancient people attached the word 'pottery' to their discovery and used it to create various vessels and tools to improve the quality of life. Over the course of thousands of years, pottery became dominant wares in people's daily life: used to cook, to store things, and to hold cuisine or waters as dishes. As time passed, the technique became more and more consummate. Different kinds of pottery appeared in different times and regions. Yangshao Culture, 5,000 - 7,000 years ago to today, developed a technique for painted pottery. Qujialing Culture and Longshan Culture, dating back about 4,000 years ago, were known for their black pottery. During the Shang Dynasty (16th - 11th century BC) bronze vessels grew into somewhat of a status symbol; common people, though, still used traditional clay pottery. Workshops of grey and white potters took the artistic features of bronze wares and decorated their articles ornately. From the Warring States Period through the Han Dynasty, the art and culture of pottery thrived. In addition to creating everyday pieces, pottery beasts and warriors were created and buried with the grandees. The Terra Cotta Warriors, discovered in Xian, are the finest representatives of artworks of that time. Visitors to the Warriors are continually amazed by the grandeur and elaborate displays of the well-preserved army. During the Three Kingdoms Period (220 - 280), the forging technique of porcelain gradually replaced traditional pottery handiwork. Another fine example of beautifully crafted pottery is the tricolor glazed pottery of the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907). The pieces were created by adding various metals oxide and baking at a low temperature. The glazed pottery would appear to be light yellow, reddish brown, shamrock or light green. The most popular were those of yellow, brown and green. The sculpting of figures, animals or daily appliances was amazingly in accord with the characteristics of Tang art - graceful and lively. Preferred by many foreigners to the region, the tricolor glazed pottery had been transported all over the world. Another choice pottery that won great reputation for hundreds of years is purple clay pottery. It is well-known for its mild color, condensed structure, high intensity and fine particles. As early as the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279), people found purple clay teapots to look much more graceful than those of other materials. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, tea developed as a simple and tasteful art. People who liked drinking tea held firm to the belief that tea in the purple clay pot smelled balmier and could retain the original quality; these teapots transferred heat slower and were more endurable of heat; after long time's use, the teapot would not fade but become more lustrous. Modern people still delight in this classic fashion ideal. When foreigners negotiate, or register in certain areas of China, they may be surprised at Chinese' special fondness and preference for seals. To Chinese, seals are an art of deep cultural roots, which combines the essence of both calligraphy and engraving and inspires generations to study, to appreciate and to collect. It is believed that seals came out as early as 8,000 years ago after our ancestors could make pottery wares and had private property. They were assumed to make marks on their own possessions to prevent theft. When the first dynasty was established, the king began to use seals to empower and to show lordly credits. Only the king's special seal was then called 'Xi', which represented the highest authority. The first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, had his 'Xi' made out of the invaluable and beautiful jade 'Heshi Bi'. Then followed the local governments who needed seals for similar function. Simultaneously private seals were carved in a variety of auspicious characters and vivid animal patterns. Gradually the sphragistics came into being. Now many collectors' favorites are of that kind. The heyday of seal history was during the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) Dynasties when the feudal arts flourished. As wash paintings thrived, artists stamped their seal on the 'xuan,' a special kind of high quality paper used for painted scrolls in order to identify themselves and to add interest. Various sects of carving were erected by noted seal cutting sculptors. The title, "Father of Seal Engraving" definitely belongs to Wen Peng, the son of Wen Zhenming, one of China's most famous calligraphers and painters. The charm of Wen Peng's engraving lay in the dainty mellowness of the cut and the elegant, flying characters. Although a master of his craft, what makes him the 'Father of Seal Engraving' was his ingenuity in introducing a longer lasting more durable material for seals. One day, the story goes, Wen Peng met an old man selling stones for women's headdress. The man was having a difficult time selling the stones; potential buyers had all proposed unreasonably low prices. When Wen Peng saw the stones, it suddenly occurred to him that they could be used as seals. He bought the stones at a high price, helping the old man out of his predicament. When he returned home, he cut the stones with great strength, producing the most delicate of seals. The first stone seal emerged. Until that time, seals had been made of bronze or pottery. Another noted seal engraver was He Zhen of the late Ming Dynasty. He used the graver steadily and neatly with strength and vigor, and the curves of each character were quite clear and harmonious. His works stopped the vogue of affectation and influenced the engravers of the Qing Dynasty. The genre of seal is greatly determined by the strength and speed of wrist and hand. Seals, like a person's character, are distinctive from each other. A sanguine seal engraver makes deft and buoyant strokes while a sober person makes careful and neat ones. Seal carving also requires choice materials like metal, jade, animal teeth and horns, pottery, bamboo, fruit-pits, and stones. A good material should feel slippery, smooth, cool at first but warm after a second; when cut, it should have certain flexibility. Qingtian stone, Tianhuang stone, Balin stone and 'chicken's blood stone' (Jixue shi) are all first-class materials among stones used for seal cutting. Tianhuang stone features its translucency; 'chicken's blood stone, the red dapples. "A silkworm spins all its silk till its death and a candle won't stop its tears until it is fully burnt." This Tang poem accurately describes the property of the silkworm. Despite technological development, a silkworm can only produce a certain amount of silk---1000 meters (3280feet) in its lifespan of 28 days. The rarity of the raw material is the deciding factor of both the value and the mystery of silk. Legend has it that in ancient times, Lei Zu, the wife of Huang Di , taught people how to raise silkworms and how to extract the silk. The Warring States Period, the beginning of feudalist society in Chinese history, witnessed a prosperous time. The development of productivity popularized silk and it was no longer a luxury just for aristocrats. The pattern, weaving, embroidery and dyeing skills were all improved as they were influenced by the free ideology of the time, while the silk designs had sense of a free and bold air about them. The silk products excavated from Mawangdui Han Tomb are proof of the advanced skill and artistry of silk at this time. Silk production peaked during the Han Dynasty when the manufactured goods were transported as far away as Rome from Chang'an (today's Xian). The overland trade route was to become famously known as the Silk Road. However, there was also a Marine Silk Road extending from Xuwen, Guangdong or Hepu, Guangxi to Vietnam. An outward bound voyage lasting five months would arrive in Vietnam; it would take another four months to reach Thailand; while a further twenty days would carry the merchants on to Burma. Two months later they would arrive in India and Sri Lanka, from where the silk would be eventually transported to Rome via the Mediterranean. After such a long journey, the price of silk was equivalent to that of gold. Legendary as it seems, tender silk connected China to the rest of the world. During subsequent dynasties, professional designers created novel patterns and improved the machines. The Marine Silk Road took supremacy over the land Silk Road following the Song Dynasty extending the trade to Southeast Asia which became fully developed in the Yuan Dynasty. Besides Chinese exports, foreign businessmen also came to China to buy silk and china wares. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties silk was transported to Europe and America from Manila and this meant that China dominated the world's silk market until 1908. Chinese characters including the component "silk" have the intonation of silk or its implication of fine and deep. The richness of color, texture, strength and beauty of silk make it the means to imply something is fine and impeccable. A woman's raven hair is referred to as 'black silk' ; tender feelings are 'feelings of silk' and the Chinese word for a lingering and emotive feeling contains the component of "silk", and even a flavor can be silky and smooth. Major local silk products of China Shu Brocade Shu Brocade made in Sichuan originated from Han and reached its heyday in the Wei, Jin, Sui and Tang Dynasties. With red as the predominate color, Shu Brocade has a variety of designs, fully reflecting the flowery nature of Shu Culture. In the Tang Dynasty, Dou Shilun, Duke Lingyang, created a set of designs for Shu Brocade, which was known as the "Duke Ling Yang Pattern". Yun Brocade Yun Brocade was developed during the Yuan Dynasty although its origin could date back to the Southern Dynasty. Historical records suggest that prior to the Southern Dynasty there was no brocade in Nanjing until Emperor Liu Yu (363-422) had workers move to Jiankang (today's Nanjing) and established production there. Yun Brocade features quality material, refined weaving and the wide use of gold and silver threads. This magnificence gained the name of Yun, which is Chinese for 'cloud'. Elegant Yun Brocade ultimately became a precious artwork and no longer a fabric for day to day wear. In the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties Yun Brocade was a royal tribute. As the unique weaving skill cannot be undertaken by modern machinery, Yun Brocade remains very expensive. Song Brocade Song Brocade, as the name implies, originated from the end of Northern Song. Record has it that a Mr. Ji used Song Brocade for the paperhanging of some precious calligraphy copies. In all there were twenty different designs of this brocade. When the Ji family declined, they wanted to sell the copies but failed to do so due to the high price they demanded. Later some rich man bought them and used the brocade as patterns in workshops in Wu (today's Suzhou area). He made a substantial profit from it! This is regarded as the origin of Song Brocade. And it inherits the old tradition---today Song Jin is mainly used for paperhanging. Brocades by Ethnic Groups Zhuang Brocade Zhuang Brocade is the creation of the Zhuang ethnic group in Guangxi. Zhuang Brocade features rich colors, as this is the artistry of Zhuang people. The patterns vary from waves, clouds, grass and flowers to animals. Phoenix, the symbol of auspiciousness, takes a dominant role in these designs. Zhuang Brocade is durable and can be widely used in beddings, belts, bags and clothes. Dong Brocade Dong Brocade from Hunan features softness and neatness. Li Brocade Li Brocade from Hainan is firm with bold primitive designs. Tujia Brocade Tujia Brocade from the west of Hunan and Hubei is known for its mass, variety of designs and gorgeous colors. Yao Brocade Yao Brocade from Hunan is notable, too. The Brocades for bedding are neat and light in color with simple designs while those for clothes are flowery. Some of the symbols woven into Yao Brocade are regarded as the legendary "female characters", which are limited among women. Women use these special symbols or characters to convey messages. Though there is no way of telling if the female character is a branch of an ancient oracle system or that of Yao words, Yao Brocade has become a medium of such a mystery. Hang Brocade made in Hangzhou, Jing Brocade from Jiangling, Hubei, and Ning Silk from Nanjing, Jiang Silk form Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, Hu Crape from Huzhou, Zhejiang Province all occupy outstanding roles in the history of Chinese silk. Note: For detailed information on Dynasties, please refer to The History of China = China, one of the countries that can boast of an ancient civilization, has a long and mysterious history - almost 5,000 years of it! Like most other great civilizations of the world, China can trace her culture back to a blend of small original tribes which have expanded till they became the great country we have today. It is recorded that Yuanmou man is the oldest hominoid in China and the oldest dynasty is Xia Dynasty. From the long history of China, there emerge many eminent people that have contributed a lot to the development of the whole country and to the enrichment of her history. Among them, there are emperors like Li Shimin (emperor Taizong of the Tang), philosophers like Confucius, great patriotic poets like Qu Yuan and so on. Chinese society has progressed through five major stages - Primitive Society, Slave Society, Feudal Society, Capitalist Society and Socialist Society. The rise and fall of the great dynasties forms a thread that runs through Chinese history, almost from the beginning. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China on October 1st, 1949, China has become a socialist society and become stronger and stronger. Click to get the List of Chinese Dynasties China, an ancient, mysterious and beautiful land, is always appealing to adventurous foreign visitors. As the third largest country in the world occupying an area of 9,600,000 sq km, it spans 62 degrees of longitude and 49 degrees of latitude. A wide variety of terrain and climate shape its numerous natural attractions. Abundant in a variety of resources, plants, animals, and minerals, the land has nurtured countless generations of Chinese people. One of China's greatest treasures is her long, rich history. As early as 1.7 million years ago, the earliest humans evolved on this land. The first dynasty, the Xia Dynasty, dates to about the 21st century BC. For 4,000 years, feudalism was the dominant economic and cultural model. Then, in 1911, the revolution led by Sun Yat-sen brought the monarchy to an end. On October 1st, 1949, modern China was founded as the 'People's Republic of China'. Since then, China has developed independently and vigorously. Most recently, reform and opening-up policy has energized life in China. China is proud of her many people, long history, resplendent culture and distinctive customs. Among her greatest gifts to the world are the 'four great inventions' (paper, gunpowder, printing and the compass) . Chinese arts and crafts, including painting, calligraphy, operas, embroidery and silk are distinctive and unique. Martial arts, which have only recently begun to enjoy popularity in other parts of the world have been part of Chinese culture for centuries, and Chinese literature is testifies to the country's rich heritage. And, of course, there is Chinese cuisine, which has been exported to every corner of the globe. Basic details: Full name: The People's Republic of China Area: 9,600,000 sq km Location: middle and East Asia, bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean Climate: mainly continental monsoon climate (Tibet: vertical climate zone) Territorial seas: the Bohai Sea, the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea, and the South China Sea Population: 1.3 billion (as of 2004) Capital City: Beijing People: Han Chinese (93.3%), plus 55 ethnic groups like Miao, Li, Mongolian Language: Mandarin Chinese (Putonghua) based on Beijing dialect, plus local dialects The main religions and beliefs: officially atheist, Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, Islam (over 22 million), Catholicism (over 4 million) and Protestantism (over 10 million) Currency and monetary unit : Renminbi/Yuan Form of government: system of National People's Congress Administrative demarcations: 23 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities, and 2 Special Administrative Regions Chinese President: Hu Jintao Located in Southeast Asia along the coastline of the Pacific Ocean, China is the world's third largest country, after Russia and Canada. With an area of 9.6 million square kilometers and a coastline of 18,000 kilometers, its shape on the map is like a rooster. It reaches Mohe in Heilongjiang Province as its northern end, Zengmu Ansha (or James Shoal) to the south, Pamirs to the west, and expands to the eastern border at the conjunction of the Heilongjiang (Amur) River and the Wusuli (Ussuri) River, spanning about 50 degrees of latitude and 62 degrees of longitude. China is bordered by 14 countries -- Korea, Vietnam, Laos, Burma, India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Mongolia, and Russia. Marine-side neighbors include eight countries -- North Korea, Korea, Japan, Philippines, Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia and Vietnam. Physical Features The vast land expanses of China include plateaus, plains, basins, foothills, and mountains. Defining rugged plateaus, foothills and mountains as mountainous, they occupy nearly two-thirds of the land, higher in the West and lower in the East like a three-step ladder. The highest step of the typical 'ladder topography' is formed by the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau at the average height of over 4,000 meters, with the Kunlunshan range, Qilianshan range and Hengduan mountain chain as the division between this step and the second one. The highest peak in the world, Everest, at 8844.43 meters high is known as 'the Roof of the World'. On the second step are large basins and plateaus, most of which are 1,000 - 2,000 meters high. The Daxing'an, Taihang, Wu and Xuefeng Mountains divide this step and the next lower one. Plateaus including Inner Mongolian, Loess, Yungui Plateaus, and basins such as Tarim, Junggar, and Sichuan Basins are situated here. The third step, abundant in broad plains, is dotted with the foothills and lower mountains, with altitudes of over 500 meters. Here are located famous plains: the Northeast, the North China, and the Middle-Lower Yangtze Plains, neighboring with each other from north to south. These well-cultivated and fertile lands produce abundant crops. Regional Divisions Although the physical features are as described, people tend to divide China into four regions, that is, the North, South, Northwest and the Qinghai-Tibetan areas. Because of geographical differences, residents of each region have distinctive life styles and customs. The North and South regions are located in the Eastern monsoon area and are divided by the Qin Mountains-Huai River. Nearly 95 percent of the Chinese population lives here. The other two regions, the Northwest and Qinghai-Tibetan regions that occupy 55 percent of the land, have fewer people, although most of the ethnic groups cluster there. Rivers and Lakes China has numerous rivers and lakes. According to statistics, more than 50,000 rivers have drainage areas that exceed 100 square kilometers; more than 1,500 exceed 1,000 square kilometers. These rivers can also be classified as exterior and interior rivers. The Yangtze, the longest in China and even in Asia, is the third-longest in the world. The Yellow River, 'Mother River of the Chinese People', is just behind the Yangtze, both flowing into the Pacific Ocean. The Yarlung Zangbo River belongs to the Indian Ocean water system, and the Irtysh River to the Arctic Ocean. On the other side, the interior rivers drain less area than the exterior ones. Lakes are also important. The areas with the most lakes are the Middle-Lower Yangtze Plain and Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Many lakes in the northwest are salty. QinghaiLake, a beautiful natural salt-water lake, is the largest. In southeast China, most lakes are fresh water. Poyang Lake, Dongting Lake , and Taihu Lake are all fresh water lakes. These provide China with precious resources such as aquatic products, petroleum, natural gas, mines and renewable resources including tide power. Mountainous Topography China has large areas of mountainous land, about two-thirds of the country. The ranges mainly run from east to west and from northeast to southwest. Among these mountains, some reach to the sky, and others are lower with charming scenery. Out of the mountains throughout the world at the altitude of over 7,000 meters, over 50 stand in China. To the east in China, lower mountains like Mt. Taishan, Mt. Huashan, and Mt. Emeishan, also display their unique beauty. In addition, they hide rich treasures including botanic, zoologic, and mineral resources. Climate In China, a vast land spanning many degrees of latitude with complicated terrain, climate varies radically. China has a variety of temperature and rainfall zones, including continental monsoon areas. In winter most areas become cold and dry, in summer hot and rainy. In Xinjiang Province, people have the saying, "we wear a leather coat in the morning and gauze at noon; eat watermelon around a fire." Temperature Zones Temperatures vary a great deal. Influenced by latitude and monsoon activities, in winter, an isotherm of zero degrees traverses the Huaihe River-Qinling Mountain-southeast Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Areas north of the isotherm have temperatures below zero degrees and south of it, above zero. Mohe Town in Heilongjiang Province can hit an average of 30 degrees centigrade below zero, while temperature in Hainan Province is above 20 degrees. In summer, most of areas are above 20 centigrade, despite the high Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and other mountains such as Tianshan. Among these hot places, Turpan Basin in Xinjiang is the center for intense heat at 32 centigrade on average. There are also the famous 'Three Ovens' cities along the Yangtze River in summer: Chongqing, Wuhan, and Nanjing. From north to south, there are five temperature zones and a plateau-climate zone: one cold-temperate zone, mid-temperate zone, warm-temperate zone, subtropical zone, tropical zone and a plateau climate zone. Distributions are as follows: Cold-temperate zone: north part of Heilongjiang Province and Inner Mongolia Mid-temperate zone: Jilin, northern Xinjiang, and most of Heilongjiang, Liaoning, and Inner Mongolia Warm-temperate zone: area of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, Shandong, Shanxi, Shaanxi, and Hebei Province. Subtropical zone: South of isotherm of Qinling Mountain-Huaihe River, east of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Tropical zone: Hainan province, southern Taiwan, Guangdong, and Yunnan Province Plateau climate zone: Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Precipitation Precipitation in China is basically regular each year. From the spatial angle, the distribution shows that the rainfall is increasing from southeast to northwest, because the eastern seashores are influenced more than inland areas by the summer monsoon. In the place with the most rainfall, Huoshaoliao in Taiwan, the average annual precipitation can reach over 6,000 mm! The rainy seasons are mainly May to September. Thus rich rainfall sometimes creates floods and drought accounts for the dry air in winter. In some areas, especially in the dry northwest, changes in precipitation every year are greater than in the coastal area. This is caused by the advance and retreat of the irregular summer monsoon. Viewed spatially, South China, with its longer rainy season, has more rainfall than the North. Based on precipitation, the area divides into four parts: wet area, semi-wet area, semi-dry area and dry area. The first two are distributed alongside the Qinling Mountain-Huaihe River division, the 800 mm annual precipitation line (isohyet), and are the dominant farming areas. The 400 mm annual isohyet lies along the Daxing'an Mountains-Great Wall-Gangdisi Mountains, and divides the semi-wet and semi-dry areas. The last two areas support a very small population. Their boundary, the 200 mm annual isohyet, is approximately via middle Inner Mongolia and the Helan and Qilian Mountains to the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Monsoon In summer, a southeast monsoon from the western Pacific Ocean and a southwest monsoon from the equatorial Indian Ocean blow onto the Chinese mainland. These monsoons are the main cause of rainfall. Starting in April and May, the summer rainy season monsoons hit the southern provinces of Guangdong, Guangxi, and Hainan. In June, the rains blow northward, and South China gets more rainfall with the poetic name, plum-rain weather, since this is the moment when plums mellow. North China greets its rainy season in July and August, says farewell in September; gradually in October the summer monsoons retreat from Chinese land. Eastern China experiences many climate changes, while the northwest area is a non-monsoon region. We are the world's largest population. We descend from Yan Di and Huang Di , the two mythical kings or chieftains who had ruled the land 4,400 years ago. Among our 56 ethnic groups, the Han people stand out to make up 93.3% of the most recent census statistics. Yan Di allied with Huang Di in order to regain his lost territory in lower Yellow River from Chi You, a leader of Jiuli, a people from south China. Their combined strength proved advantageous for both, and they formed a merger. We further list three huang and five di among our proud and wise ancestral leaders. They are revered similar to prophets in the Middle Eastern religions. Three huang refer to Fu Xi , Nu Wa, Shen Nong (Yan Di) while five di refer to Huang Di, Zhuan Xiang, Di Ku, Tang Yao and Yu Shun. Similar to Hebrew biblical accounts on tribal affairs, the Chinese minorities came from splinter groups formed after royal edicts that marked major events in history. Exiled leaders fathered the minor tribes. According to Shi Ji by Sima Qian, Gong Gong, Dou, San Miao and Gun offended Zhuan Yu and were exiled upon Shun's request to north, south, west and east respectively. Thus, Gong Gong became the ancestor of Di, Dou that of Man, San Miao that of Rong and Gun that of Yi. The tempered Chinese national characteristics emerged after three subsequent dynasties: the Xia, the Shang, and the Zhou. The turmoil endured by people during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States led to a common desire for a unified country. Emperor Qin Shi Huang ruled as the first emperor, with Han tribes forming the nucleus of a united China. But the name Han is associated with the Western Han Dynasty that came after the first emperor's reign. Another unsettling period arrived with the Three Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties. The five hu people resettled in the Yellow River region. Then the Northern Wei reunified the territories to bring about peace. About this time the various minorities had tacitly acknowledged the dominance of Han people and their way of life. The Chinese nation had finally emerged. Enamel filling: Through this interesting procedure, the cloisonne wears a colored wrap. Handicrafts specialists fill enamel glaze into lattices formed by fine-spun filigrees. Just one filling is not enough - the filigrees extrude, and the surface is dull. They have to fuse powdery glaze in the smelter at 800 degrees centigrade, then take the object out and repeat the process three or four times until its surface becomes smooth. Surface polishing: Seeking smooth surfaces, artisans polish articles three times with grit or charcoal. The work requires extreme care. Gilding: After acid pickling, fluid gold adds elegance and civility to a cloisonne piece. Today cloisonne technique is associated with the sculpture of wood, jade, ivory and lacquer. Cloisonne art is exported to many countries as a favorite medium for ornaments. Jade has a history in China of at least four thousands years. Unknown to some, jade is found contained within the development of religion and civilization, having moved from the use of decoration on to the others such as the rites of worship and burial. Although other materials like gold, silver and bronze were also used, none of these have ever exceeded the spiritual position that jade has acquired in peoples' minds - it is associated with merit, morality, grace and dignity. In the funeral objects of the people of the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC - 24 AD), for example, we can see only high officials were buried with jade articles. Jade has influenced all walks of life. In ancient times, people expressed abstract notions with concrete patterns of Chinese character, which were influenced by Taoism and Buddhism. Jade craftworks were among the most precious and luxurious ones; people wore and decorated rooms to indicate loyalty, elegance, beauty, and eternity. The most popular patterns were: peach (longevity), mandarin duck (love), deer (high official ranks), bat (blessing), fish (affluence), double phoenixes (thriving), bottle (safety), lotus (holiness), bamboo (lofty conduct), and fan (benevolence), etc. In Chinese, jade is pronounced as 'Yu', and most words related to moral include this word such as 'Unpolished jade never shines,' indicating that one cannot be a useful person if he is not educated. Jade also implied honor and conviction. Many girls in ancient times were also named with jade to reflect the love of their parents. One of the Four Beauties in Chinese history, Yang Yuhuan, the beloved concubine of Emperor Xuanzong in the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907), was their representative. Yang is her surname and her given name Yuhuan means simply 'jade ring'. People believed that jade was the expression of the most beautiful stone. A beautiful piece can be more valuable than fifteen cities and a man's life. Historic records tell of a story about a stanch man named Bian He who had a piece of jade called 'Heshi Bi' which was said to be the most priceless treasure in history. However, when Bian He discovered the piece, it was hidden under the veil of the coarse stone in which it laid. He did not dare to carve it but instead dedicated it to the King of State Chu. He never knew that he would pay two legs for his dedication, for the king did not know the real value of the jade and cut Bian He's legs off. He cried for three days and nights. Afterwards, the new king heard of him and wanted to see whether his jade was as precious as he said. When the jade was cut, all were startled by the delicate quality. Very soon, it became a national treasure and was called 'Heshi Bi'. So precious was the stone that it even became a source of conflict between the Qin State and Zhao State. Jadeite As early as the 16th century, Jadeite was believed to be a precious and hard jade with healing qualities for the human stomach and kidneys. Since it was brought into China during the early Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911), it had been doted on greatly. Jadeite contains an iron component which appears red, chromium that appears green, and many other colored types. Known as the 'king of jade', it is usually a more expensive type of jade. Nephrite Jade Nephrite's robustness is due to the fact it contains tremolite. It also can be divided into several sub-classifications according to color: white, grey, green, topaz, and black jade. In China, the most reputable jade producing area is Hetian in Xinjiang Province. Hetian jade is so hard that it can scratch glass. It has often been found in very huge pieces. An example of this is the huge jade hill on which the grand scene of Yu the Great leading people to control flood is elaborately carved. It was 5,350 kg weight (11,795 pounds) when it was completed. Now this artwork is displayed in the Forbidden City. Serpentine jade, or Xiu yu in Chinese, is mainly from Xiuyan County in Liaoning Province. Made of many different ingredients, it takes on various appearances: white, yellow, light yellow, pink, green, dark green, light green and so on. This type of jade is usually coloured in various shades of green. Usually serpentine jade is semi-transparent or even opaque like wax. Lantian jade is produced in Lantian County, north of Xian in Shaanxi Province. It was also among the most charming ancient jades, for its rigidity made it easier to be carved into decorations and jewelry by our ancestors. The hue is uneven in colors of yellow or light green. Nanyang County in Henan Province is famous for its abundant Nanyang jade. The ore district is located on an isolated 200 meter high hill, called Dushan Hill (thus its other name of 'Dushan jade'). It is distinctive for its whimsicality. Among the Nanyang jade artworks, you will find rare purple, blue and red ones. Appreciation and Maintenance Experts believe that, although more expensive, diamonds and gold cannot be compared with jade - jade is animated with a soul. They often buy to collect their favorite jade artworks, while people with little knowledge of jade may buy coarse works. To obtain a real and choice jade article, you should take pains to learn and appreciate it. The criteria lie in the brightness of color and luster, compactness of inner structure, and the delicacy of the craftwork. For example, nephrite creates an oily luster and jadeite creates a vitreous luster. Tiny cracks can lower the value of jade; on real jade, air bubbles cannot be seen; the more lenitive the higher quality of jade, and so on. Having purchased a jade article is just half the process of collecting. Jade is like a child that needs constant care. Enthusiasts need to work more to maintain this artwork, or blemishes may appear. First, avoid bumping on hard surfaces as jade is delicate. Although sometimes a crack cannot be seen by the naked eye, the interior structure may have been damaged. As time goes on, it will appear and reduce the value of the piece. Second, protect jade articles from dust or greasy dirt. If tainted, they must be scrubbed with a soft brush and light suds and washed with clean water. Third, when left unused it is best to store the jade in a case or box to protect it from being bumped. Fourth, jade should be kept away from perfume, perspiration or chemicals. The brightness of jade risks corrosion, especially emerald and other high quality jade, so it is better to clean it with a soft cloth after wearing it. Fifth, do not expose jade to sunlight for a long time, or it may expand and the quality will change slightly. Finally, jade has certain water content so keep it in an area of humidity to protect it from over-drying. Emanating a serene luster, lacquer ware is another exquisite Chinese craft. The earliest users of lacquer, Chinese people have enjoyed its beauty since the Neolithic Age. A wood-based red lacquer bowl made 6,000 - 7,000 years ago unveiled the history of lacquer techniques. Early pieces were in simple red and black. During the Warring States Period (476 BC - 221 BC) to the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220), lacquer ware popularity peaked demonstrating exquisite techniques and vivid patterns such as animals and clouds. Lacquer relics excavated in the Mawangdui Han Tombs which have a history of over 2,000 years, amaze visitors with their pearl-like sheen. The Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties were also prosperous periods during which time more than 400 varieties of lacquer ware were used as common implements and as ornaments. Fuzhou lacquer wares, firm yet lightweight, are resistant to heat, acid, alkali and electricity. Pieces made in Yangzhou are famous for their elegance and delicacy and the unique creative technique - whorl filling (Dianluo in Chinese) which takes shells as material, processes them into sheets as thin as cicada wings, and pastes them carefully onto lacquer bodies. With this process, people even inset treasures like crystal, jade, pearls and coral onto lacquer furniture, tea wares, and writing brushes. Pingyao, an ancient town in Shanxi Province, produces lacquer ware which features the luster polished by craftsmen's palms. This simple but radiant artwork ranks as the most refined. Porcelain, also called 'fine china', featuring its delicate texture, pleasing color, and refined sculpture, has been one of the earliest artworks introduced to the western world through the Silk Road. The earliest porcelain ware was found made of Kaolin in the Shang Dynasty (16th - 11th century BC), and possessed the common aspects of the smoothness and impervious quality of hard enamel, though pottery wares were more widely used among most of the ordinary people. Anyway it was the beginning of porcelain, which afterwards in the succeeding dynasties and due to its durability and luster, rapidly became a necessity of daily life, especially in the middle and upper classes. They were made in the form of all kinds of items, such as bowls, cups, tea sets, vases, jewel cases, incense burners, musical instruments and boxes for stationary and chess, as well as pillows for traditional doctors to use to feel one's pulse. The development of porcelain in the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220) began to accelerate and before long the artworks were introduced westward. Celadon (like the color of jade) and black porcelain wares were the dominant types at that time. Styles of porcelain had formed and differed based on regions by then. The Yue Kiln in Zhejiang Province, which has enjoyed a good reputation for over 2,000 years up to now, produced delicate and hard celadon porcelain; while the De Kiln became the earliest kiln that baked black porcelain. During the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907), a large number of porcelain wares were in daily use having been substituted for the ones made of gold, silver, jade and other materials. With export, Chinese patterns on these wares also took on more exotic appeal. The Yue and De kiln of Zhejiang Province had features that were the most popular ones, and another one, Xing kiln in Hebei Province was greatly prized for its white porcelain as 'white like snow'. Kilns baking porcelain for the royalty sprang up producing elegant and dainty works. Stepping into the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279), a variety of genres of porcelain appeared and it became a fashion that people showed great interest in purchasing and collecting certain wares suitable to their tastes. Ru, Ding, Ge, Jun and the official kilns had been the representatives of that age. Official kilns advocated concise patterns of decoration; Ru kiln in Hebei Province added treasured agate into glaze so that the color and texture appeared to be uniquely daintily creamy and could be compared with jade. Henan Province had two famous kilns named Jun and Ding kilns. Since the reign of Emperor Huizong who liked art appreciation, porcelain of Jun kiln was kept exclusively for the royal family and common people had no right to collect it no matter how much money they possessed. Since the artisans made their porcelain wares separately, there was no repetition among decorative patterns and colors. Thus this made each porcelain product more precious in its own right. Ding kiln boasted its white porcelain which has a texture as delicate as that of ivory with an adornment of black and purple glaze. Distinctive from the other four kilns which stressed color, this one was quite good at engraving and printing flower patterns. While the Ge Kiln produced porcelain articles with various grains and produced an amount of artworks greater than those of the other four. Well developed in the Yuan Dynasty (1271 - 1368), the blue and white porcelain (Qinghua Ci), in the main stream of porcelain, was the stylish artistic ware in the Ming and Qing Dynasties and promoted this period to be the most prolific in the field of feudal art. First it painted on the basic body with brush natural cobalt which would be turned blue after being in the forge. Set off by the white glaze and covered by the other level of clear glaze, the blue flowers and other patterns showed their comely charm and were widely welcomed among both refined and popular tastes. With the diversity of cobalt, theme, and style of painting, the blue and white porcelains differed constantly, each being unique. As we know, the features of porcelain lie in texture of basic body, color of glaze, decorative pattern, shape and style, while porcelain at that time had sublimed to be at the most elegant. The familiar rose porcelain was another highlight that appeared during the reign of Emperor Kangxi (1653 - 1722). The finished article appears more stereoscopic, colorful, gentle and clean. Nearly all the refined colored pigments were utilized like ancient purple, magenta, ochre, emerald, and so on. Through the development of 4,000 years, now it is still a brilliant art that attracts many people's interest. Collect your favorite porcelain article and place it in your room to enjoy the pleasure of it. The Porcelain Capital, Jingdezhen in Jiangxi Province which has been praised for thousands of years, will be certain to satisfy your esthetic appetite. Pottery may be the oldest artwork of human beings. As far back as the Neolithic Age (more than 8,000 years ago), people began mixing clay and water then baking it until it held its shape. Ancient people attached the word 'pottery' to their discovery and used it to create various vessels and tools to improve the quality of life. Over the course of thousands of years, pottery became dominant wares in people's daily life: used to cook, to store things, and to hold cuisine or waters as dishes. As time passed, the technique became more and more consummate. Different kinds of pottery appeared in different times and regions. Yangshao Culture, 5,000 - 7,000 years ago to today, developed a technique for painted pottery. Qujialing Culture and Longshan Culture, dating back about 4,000 years ago, were known for their black pottery. During the Shang Dynasty (16th - 11th century BC) bronze vessels grew into somewhat of a status symbol; common people, though, still used traditional clay pottery. Workshops of grey and white potters took the artistic features of bronze wares and decorated their articles ornately. From the Warring States Period through the Han Dynasty, the art and culture of pottery thrived. In addition to creating everyday pieces, pottery beasts and warriors were created and buried with the grandees. The Terra Cotta Warriors, discovered in Xian, are the finest representatives of artworks of that time. Visitors to the Warriors are continually amazed by the grandeur and elaborate displays of the well-preserved army. During the Three Kingdoms Period (220 - 280), the forging technique of porcelain gradually replaced traditional pottery handiwork. Another fine example of beautifully crafted pottery is the tricolor glazed pottery of the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907). The pieces were created by adding various metals oxide and baking at a low temperature. The glazed pottery would appear to be light yellow, reddish brown, shamrock or light green. The most popular were those of yellow, brown and green. The sculpting of figures, animals or daily appliances was amazingly in accord with the characteristics of Tang art - graceful and lively. Preferred by many foreigners to the region, the tricolor glazed pottery had been transported all over the world. Another choice pottery that won great reputation for hundreds of years is purple clay pottery. It is well-known for its mild color, condensed structure, high intensity and fine particles. As early as the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279), people found purple clay teapots to look much more graceful than those of other materials. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, tea developed as a simple and tasteful art. People who liked drinking tea held firm to the belief that tea in the purple clay pot smelled balmier and could retain the original quality; these teapots transferred heat slower and were more endurable of heat; after long time's use, the teapot would not fade but become more lustrous. Modern people still delight in this classic fashion ideal. When foreigners negotiate, or register in certain areas of China, they may be surprised at Chinese' special fondness and preference for seals. To Chinese, seals are an art of deep cultural roots, which combines the essence of both calligraphy and engraving and inspires generations to study, to appreciate and to collect. It is believed that seals came out as early as 8,000 years ago after our ancestors could make pottery wares and had private property. They were assumed to make marks on their own possessions to prevent theft. When the first dynasty was established, the king began to use seals to empower and to show lordly credits. Only the king's special seal was then called 'Xi', which represented the highest authority. The first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, had his 'Xi' made out of the invaluable and beautiful jade 'Heshi Bi'. Then followed the local governments who needed seals for similar function. Simultaneously private seals were carved in a variety of auspicious characters and vivid animal patterns. Gradually the sphragistics came into being. Now many collectors' favorites are of that kind. The heyday of seal history was during the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) Dynasties when the feudal arts flourished. As wash paintings thrived, artists stamped their seal on the 'xuan,' a special kind of high quality paper used for painted scrolls in order to identify themselves and to add interest. Various sects of carving were erected by noted seal cutting sculptors. The title, "Father of Seal Engraving" definitely belongs to Wen Peng, the son of Wen Zhenming, one of China's most famous calligraphers and painters. The charm of Wen Peng's engraving lay in the dainty mellowness of the cut and the elegant, flying characters. Although a master of his craft, what makes him the 'Father of Seal Engraving' was his ingenuity in introducing a longer lasting more durable material for seals. One day, the story goes, Wen Peng met an old man selling stones for women's headdress. The man was having a difficult time selling the stones; potential buyers had all proposed unreasonably low prices. When Wen Peng saw the stones, it suddenly occurred to him that they could be used as seals. He bought the stones at a high price, helping the old man out of his predicament. When he returned home, he cut the stones with great strength, producing the most delicate of seals. The first stone seal emerged. Until that time, seals had been made of bronze or pottery. Another noted seal engraver was He Zhen of the late Ming Dynasty. He used the graver steadily and neatly with strength and vigor, and the curves of each character were quite clear and harmonious. His works stopped the vogue of affectation and influenced the engravers of the Qing Dynasty. The genre of seal is greatly determined by the strength and speed of wrist and hand. Seals, like a person's character, are distinctive from each other. A sanguine seal engraver makes deft and buoyant strokes while a sober person makes careful and neat ones. Seal carving also requires choice materials like metal, jade, animal teeth and horns, pottery, bamboo, fruit-pits, and stones. A good material should feel slippery, smooth, cool at first but warm after a second; when cut, it should have certain flexibility. Qingtian stone, Tianhuang stone, Balin stone and 'chicken's blood stone' (Jixue shi) are all first-class materials among stones used for seal cutting. Tianhuang stone features its translucency; 'chicken's blood stone, the red dapples. "A silkworm spins all its silk till its death and a candle won't stop its tears until it is fully burnt." This Tang poem accurately describes the property of the silkworm. Despite technological development, a silkworm can only produce a certain amount of silk---1000 meters (3280feet) in its lifespan of 28 days. The rarity of the raw material is the deciding factor of both the value and the mystery of silk. Legend has it that in ancient times, Lei Zu, the wife of Huang Di , taught people how to raise silkworms and how to extract the silk. The Warring States Period, the beginning of feudalist society in Chinese history, witnessed a prosperous time. The development of productivity popularized silk and it was no longer a luxury just for aristocrats. The pattern, weaving, embroidery and dyeing skills were all improved as they were influenced by the free ideology of the time, while the silk designs had sense of a free and bold air about them. The silk products excavated from Mawangdui Han Tomb are proof of the advanced skill and artistry of silk at this time. Silk production peaked during the Han Dynasty when the manufactured goods were transported as far away as Rome from Chang'an (today's Xian). The overland trade route was to become famously known as the Silk Road. However, there was also a Marine Silk Road extending from Xuwen, Guangdong or Hepu, Guangxi to Vietnam. An outward bound voyage lasting five months would arrive in Vietnam; it would take another four months to reach Thailand; while a further twenty days would carry the merchants on to Burma. Two months later they would arrive in India and Sri Lanka, from where the silk would be eventually transported to Rome via the Mediterranean. After such a long journey, the price of silk was equivalent to that of gold. Legendary as it seems, tender silk connected China to the rest of the world. During subsequent dynasties, professional designers created novel patterns and improved the machines. The Marine Silk Road took supremacy over the land Silk Road following the Song Dynasty extending the trade to Southeast Asia which became fully developed in the Yuan Dynasty. Besides Chinese exports, foreign businessmen also came to China to buy silk and china wares. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties silk was transported to Europe and America from Manila and this meant that China dominated the world's silk market until 1908. Chinese characters including the component "silk" have the intonation of silk or its implication of fine and deep. The richness of color, texture, strength and beauty of silk make it the means to imply something is fine and impeccable. A woman's raven hair is referred to as 'black silk' ; tender feelings are 'feelings of silk' and the Chinese word for a lingering and emotive feeling contains the component of "silk", and even a flavor can be silky and smooth. Major local silk products of China Shu Brocade Shu Brocade made in Sichuan originated from Han and reached its heyday in the Wei, Jin, Sui and Tang Dynasties. With red as the predominate color, Shu Brocade has a variety of designs, fully reflecting the flowery nature of Shu Culture. In the Tang Dynasty, Dou Shilun, Duke Lingyang, created a set of designs for Shu Brocade, which was known as the "Duke Ling Yang Pattern". Yun Brocade Yun Brocade was developed during the Yuan Dynasty although its origin could date back to the Southern Dynasty. Historical records suggest that prior to the Southern Dynasty there was no brocade in Nanjing until Emperor Liu Yu (363-422) had workers move to Jiankang (today's Nanjing) and established production there. Yun Brocade features quality material, refined weaving and the wide use of gold and silver threads. This magnificence gained the name of Yun, which is Chinese for 'cloud'. Elegant Yun Brocade ultimately became a precious artwork and no longer a fabric for day to day wear. In the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties Yun Brocade was a royal tribute. As the unique weaving skill cannot be undertaken by modern machinery, Yun Brocade remains very expensive. Song Brocade Song Brocade, as the name implies, originated from the end of Northern Song. Record has it that a Mr. Ji used Song Brocade for the paperhanging of some precious calligraphy copies. In all there were twenty different designs of this brocade. When the Ji family declined, they wanted to sell the copies but failed to do so due to the high price they demanded. Later some rich man bought them and used the brocade as patterns in workshops in Wu (today's Suzhou area). He made a substantial profit from it! This is regarded as the origin of Song Brocade. And it inherits the old tradition---today Song Jin is mainly used for paperhanging. Brocades by Ethnic Groups Zhuang Brocade Zhuang Brocade is the creation of the Zhuang ethnic group in Guangxi. Zhuang Brocade features rich colors, as this is the artistry of Zhuang people. The patterns vary from waves, clouds, grass and flowers to animals. Phoenix, the symbol of auspiciousness, takes a dominant role in these designs. Zhuang Brocade is durable and can be widely used in beddings, belts, bags and clothes. Dong Brocade Dong Brocade from Hunan features softness and neatness. Li Brocade Li Brocade from Hainan is firm with bold primitive designs. Tujia Brocade Tujia Brocade from the west of Hunan and Hubei is known for its mass, variety of designs and gorgeous colors. Yao Brocade Yao Brocade from Hunan is notable, too. The Brocades for bedding are neat and light in color with simple designs while those for clothes are flowery. Some of the symbols woven into Yao Brocade are regarded as the legendary "female characters", which are limited among women. Women use these special symbols or characters to convey messages. Though there is no way of telling if the female character is a branch of an ancient oracle system or that of Yao words, Yao Brocade has become a medium of such a mystery. Hang Brocade made in Hangzhou, Jing Brocade from Jiangling, Hubei, and Ning Silk from Nanjing, Jiang Silk form Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, Hu Crape from Huzhou, Zhejiang Province all occupy outstanding roles in the history of Chinese silk. Note: For detailed information on Dynasties, please refer to The History of China = China, one of the countries that can boast of an ancient civilization, has a long and mysterious history - almost 5,000 years of it! Like most other great civilizations of the world, China can trace her culture back to a blend of small original tribes which have expanded till they became the great country we have today. It is recorded that Yuanmou man is the oldest hominoid in China and the oldest dynasty is Xia Dynasty. From the long history of China, there emerge many eminent people that have contributed a lot to the development of the whole country and to the enrichment of her history. Among them, there are emperors like Li Shimin (emperor Taizong of the Tang), philosophers like Confucius, great patriotic poets like Qu Yuan and so on. Chinese society has progressed through five major stages - Primitive Society, Slave Society, Feudal Society, Capitalist Society and Socialist Society. The rise and fall of the great dynasties forms a thread that runs through Chinese history, almost from the beginning. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China on October 1st, 1949, China has become a socialist society and become stronger and stronger. Click to get the List of Chinese Dynasties China, an ancient, mysterious and beautiful land, is always appealing to adventurous foreign visitors. As the third largest country in the world occupying an area of 9,600,000 sq km, it spans 62 degrees of longitude and 49 degrees of latitude. A wide variety of terrain and climate shape its numerous natural attractions. Abundant in a variety of resources, plants, animals, and minerals, the land has nurtured countless generations of Chinese people. One of China's greatest treasures is her long, rich history. As early as 1.7 million years ago, the earliest humans evolved on this land. The first dynasty, the Xia Dynasty, dates to about the 21st century BC. For 4,000 years, feudalism was the dominant economic and cultural model. Then, in 1911, the revolution led by Sun Yat-sen brought the monarchy to an end. On October 1st, 1949, modern China was founded as the 'People's Republic of China'. Since then, China has developed independently and vigorously. Most recently, reform and opening-up policy has energized life in China. China is proud of her many people, long history, resplendent culture and distinctive customs. Among her greatest gifts to the world are the 'four great inventions' (paper, gunpowder, printing and the compass) . Chinese arts and crafts, including painting, calligraphy, operas, embroidery and silk are distinctive and unique. Martial arts, which have only recently begun to enjoy popularity in other parts of the world have been part of Chinese culture for centuries, and Chinese literature is testifies to the country's rich heritage. And, of course, there is Chinese cuisine, which has been exported to every corner of the globe. Basic details: Full name: The People's Republic of China Area: 9,600,000 sq km Location: middle and East Asia, bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean Climate: mainly continental monsoon climate (Tibet: vertical climate zone) Territorial seas: the Bohai Sea, the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea, and the South China Sea Population: 1.3 billion (as of 2004) Capital City: Beijing People: Han Chinese (93.3%), plus 55 ethnic groups like Miao, Li, Mongolian Language: Mandarin Chinese (Putonghua) based on Beijing dialect, plus local dialects The main religions and beliefs: officially atheist, Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, Islam (over 22 million), Catholicism (over 4 million) and Protestantism (over 10 million) Currency and monetary unit : Renminbi/Yuan Form of government: system of National People's Congress Administrative demarcations: 23 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities, and 2 Special Administrative Regions Chinese President: Hu Jintao Located in Southeast Asia along the coastline of the Pacific Ocean, China is the world's third largest country, after Russia and Canada. With an area of 9.6 million square kilometers and a coastline of 18,000 kilometers, its shape on the map is like a rooster. It reaches Mohe in Heilongjiang Province as its northern end, Zengmu Ansha (or James Shoal) to the south, Pamirs to the west, and expands to the eastern border at the conjunction of the Heilongjiang (Amur) River and the Wusuli (Ussuri) River, spanning about 50 degrees of latitude and 62 degrees of longitude. China is bordered by 14 countries -- Korea, Vietnam, Laos, Burma, India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Mongolia, and Russia. Marine-side neighbors include eight countries -- North Korea, Korea, Japan, Philippines, Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia and Vietnam. Physical Features The vast land expanses of China include plateaus, plains, basins, foothills, and mountains. Defining rugged plateaus, foothills and mountains as mountainous, they occupy nearly two-thirds of the land, higher in the West and lower in the East like a three-step ladder. The highest step of the typical 'ladder topography' is formed by the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau at the average height of over 4,000 meters, with the Kunlunshan range, Qilianshan range and Hengduan mountain chain as the division between this step and the second one. The highest peak in the world, Everest, at 8844.43 meters high is known as 'the Roof of the World'. On the second step are large basins and plateaus, most of which are 1,000 - 2,000 meters high. The Daxing'an, Taihang, Wu and Xuefeng Mountains divide this step and the next lower one. Plateaus including Inner Mongolian, Loess, Yungui Plateaus, and basins such as Tarim, Junggar, and Sichuan Basins are situated here. The third step, abundant in broad plains, is dotted with the foothills and lower mountains, with altitudes of over 500 meters. Here are located famous plains: the Northeast, the North China, and the Middle-Lower Yangtze Plains, neighboring with each other from north to south. These well-cultivated and fertile lands produce abundant crops. Regional Divisions Although the physical features are as described, people tend to divide China into four regions, that is, the North, South, Northwest and the Qinghai-Tibetan areas. Because of geographical differences, residents of each region have distinctive life styles and customs. The North and South regions are located in the Eastern monsoon area and are divided by the Qin Mountains-Huai River. Nearly 95 percent of the Chinese population lives here. The other two regions, the Northwest and Qinghai-Tibetan regions that occupy 55 percent of the land, have fewer people, although most of the ethnic groups cluster there. Rivers and Lakes China has numerous rivers and lakes. According to statistics, more than 50,000 rivers have drainage areas that exceed 100 square kilometers; more than 1,500 exceed 1,000 square kilometers. These rivers can also be classified as exterior and interior rivers. The Yangtze, the longest in China and even in Asia, is the third-longest in the world. The Yellow River, 'Mother River of the Chinese People', is just behind the Yangtze, both flowing into the Pacific Ocean. The Yarlung Zangbo River belongs to the Indian Ocean water system, and the Irtysh River to the Arctic Ocean. On the other side, the interior rivers drain less area than the exterior ones. Lakes are also important. The areas with the most lakes are the Middle-Lower Yangtze Plain and Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Many lakes in the northwest are salty. QinghaiLake, a beautiful natural salt-water lake, is the largest. In southeast China, most lakes are fresh water. Poyang Lake, Dongting Lake , and Taihu Lake are all fresh water lakes. These provide China with precious resources such as aquatic products, petroleum, natural gas, mines and renewable resources including tide power. Mountainous Topography China has large areas of mountainous land, about two-thirds of the country. The ranges mainly run from east to west and from northeast to southwest. Among these mountains, some reach to the sky, and others are lower with charming scenery. Out of the mountains throughout the world at the altitude of over 7,000 meters, over 50 stand in China. To the east in China, lower mountains like Mt. Taishan, Mt. Huashan, and Mt. Emeishan, also display their unique beauty. In addition, they hide rich treasures including botanic, zoologic, and mineral resources. |
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