CHINESE WOOL CARPETS Large carpets, particularly large wool carpets, were not used in China until comparatively recent times.Rugs to cover the ‘Kang” or fire heated brick bed platform typical in North China were not uncommon at least as early Ming times.These rugs were typically divided to give a place to set a table on the Kang or designed to cover the entire Kang.Most of these rugs were made of felt and used camel hair, which was dyed black and red at the borders.The felt rugs, some silk and others wool, in the Shoso-in at Nara, Japan are probably the earliest examples of Chinese carpets and although dating is questioned may date back to Tang times. The Ming period and far into that of the Ching Dynasty, woolen rugs for the “Kang”, temple floor mats, prayer rugs and wollen hangings came from the northern border area of China.Kansu, Suiyuan, Shensi and Shanxi all provided rugs used in China as did many distant areas reached over the old Silk Road.The later areas included Tibet, Mongolia but also areas outside Chinese control.Northern Shansi, Suiyuan and Ninghsia were all famous for the quality of their carpets.These rugs were predominantly made from wool and camel hair, which were both abundant in these areas.An example of this work, which was also done in Buddhist designs, is a carpet from Lou Lan in Chinese Turkestan which is made of wool pile and whose colors still remain bright despite the passage of time. From historical records, it appears that no wool looms were in use in Beijing until the very early 1860s.In 1860, a Buddhist priest named Ho Chi-ching, started a weaving school at Paoku for the poor of Beijing.This proved successful and the school divided into a Western gate and Eastern gate schools.Later, the Western gate school moved to Tientsin where it developed a tradition of making very durable camel wool carpets decorated with simple geometrical patterns in red, blue and brown.In the later years of the 1800s, the quality of the rug making had deteriorated markedly.The Tientsin wool rug industry collapsed completely with the fall of the Ching dynasty.In the 1930s the rug industry was restarted in both Tientsin and Shanghai with the aid of western capital.In 1949, the tradition was further transplanted to Hong Kong and other points in Asia where it carries on the tradition through more modern techniques. CHINESE SNUFF BOTTLES By most terms of history in China, snuff bottles are a relatively recent development.Tobacco reached China toward the end of the 16th Century.Similar in time to its’ introduction into England.When tobacco was converted into snuff is hard to say but by the mid seventeenth century seems to be likely. Customs records document that by 1685 snuff was entering China although it possibly may have been in use prior to that date.Snuff, however, did not come into common usage and was largely a habit of the upper classes.The Jesuits introduced its use at court and soon it became increasingly common among the court, rich landlords and merchants. The Chinese believed that snuff possessed medicinal qualities and that its use helped to dispel colds, cure migraine, sinus and tooth pain, relieve throat trouble, cause sweats and counter asthma and constipation.Snuff was believed to be particularly an aid to digestion.Beijing was always the center of snuff usage in China.The “Hsiang tsu pi chi”, a document written in the early 18th Century, notes that snuff was being manufactured in Beijing at this time.Mint, camphor and Jasmine were and still are added to snuff in China. It was not until the eighteenth century that snuff-bottles began to be made in large numbers.The traditional shape for snuff bottles were that they were small enough to fit in the palm of the hand.Generally they were provided with a small spoon fixed in the stopper and capped usually with a hemispherical piece of jade.This later touch is undoubtedly a creation of the Chi’en Lung period.Snuff bottles are most probably an evolution of the small medicine bottles that are common from an earlier period and the earliest dated piece is 1653.Snuff bottles often have either the maker’s name or the date but rarely both are present together.A large number of Chinese snuff bottles carry the mark of Ch’ien Lung, but most of these were really made during the reign of Tao Kuang (1821-1850) or later.Further, most of the snuff bottles with the K’ang Hsi reign mark were made significantly later.All of the bottles with interior painting date much later and were made into the early years of the nineteenth century. Snuff bottles are made of a wide variety of materials.These include coral, ivory, jade, jadeite, mother of pearl, lapis lazuli, quartz, malachite, agate, turquoise as well as gold, silver and many more exotic materials.Despite the number of exotic materials to chose from, glass remained the most popular substance to use and most surviving models are from this material.Glass was treated much differently by the Chinese during this period than it is today.The Chinese cut and polished it like a precious stone.By mixing metal oxides, the subsequent glass could be turned into exquisite glass sculptures.The glass for these works generally originated in Shantung although the cutting itself was done in Beijing. The most charming and truly fascinating snuff bottles are those with paintings painted on the interior walls.These were painted from the inside out through a technique that first painted the interior with iron oxydal mixed with water.This created a milky white surface suitable to take the paints, which were applied subsequently.Snuff bottles of this genre include landscapes, flower pieces and other works.These were created in a day or less of painstakingly intricate brushwork and are truly works of art.The earliest examples of these date from the 1880s so this form was a relatively late development. One of the most famous painters of these scenes was Ma Shao-hsuan who worked from 1895 to approximately the mid 1920s.Other famous artists who worked with snuff bottle paintings were Chou-Lo-yuan, Ting Erh-ch’ung and Yeh Chung-san.Lesser artists who are mentioned in several of the studies of this form of art are Kuan Yu-t’ien, Po Lang-Ch’en, Pi Chung-su, K’uei Te-t’ien, T’ang Tzu-ch’uan, Meng Tzu-show and Ch’en Chung-san.By the start of World War II in China, most of the best artists had ceased work.Many works in present day Beijing markets, of course, date from much more recent dates and in general the quality of these paintings is much inferior to earlier works. KOREAN PAINTING – Prehistory to the late 19th Century Although Korean painting is not well known in the west, it has held an important place in Korea from a very early date.One of the difficulties in studying Korean art is that conflict which has been so much a feature of life on the Korean peninsula through the ages has destroyed so much of what certainly existed in prior periods.Additionally, invasion and conquest has resulted in much of the best of what remained after battle being removed to other countries where it is more difficult to study and relate it to other Korean developments. Despite these complications in the study of Korean art, Korean art is fascinating because although it has been deeply influenced by Chinese art, the most productive periods in terms of art often do not coincide between the two countries.This can be particularly noted in Koguryo wall paintings, Buddhist paintings of the Koryo period, landscape painting in the first portion of the Choson dynasty and the landscapes painted of Korean scenes in the eighteenth century.Korean painting therefore was influenced by Chinese painting while still pursuing its own path.This resulted in different results and developments than that found on the mainland and give Korean art an interest all its own. The earliest historical record of painting in Korea comes from the area of Lelang in Korea where a tradition of painting existed from sometime around the founding of this kingdom in 108 B.C.Painted baskets in the Pyongyang museum show numerous figures demonstrating filial piety.These works show that painting was a well developed art form even at this early date.When the Lelang area was conquered in AD 313, it is believed that some of its artisans and craftsmen were absorbed into Koguryo. During the Three Kingdoms period in Korea, which was from 57 BC through 668 A.D, centers of civilization were found at Koguryo in the North which extended far into Manchuria, and at Paekche and Silla in the south.Although there is still some discussion as to which civilization was oldest, scholars generally believe that the Kingdom around Koguryo was in fact the oldest.Koguryo period painting of tombs offers the largest remaining examples of Korean painting from this period although tombs from Paekche and painted objects from Silla offer further demonstration as to the artistic measure of Koreas ancient civilizations. The wall paintings of the Koguryo tombs are located in the North of Korea in the area around present-day Tong’gou and Pyongyang.The tombs are large stone-built structures with multiple chambers and with paintings on the walls and ceilings.The earliest tombs in Koguryo date from the third and fourth century A.D. and continue on through the sixth and seventh century A.D.These later tombs, particularly the Great Tomb of Kangso, the tomb at Naeri and others are decorated with clouds and representations of birds, snakes and tortoises and also Buddhist elements such as the lotus and floral scrolls.Similar decorative details are seen at the Takamatsu tomb in Nara in Japan and it is thought that this treatment probably reflected Korean influence in the arts during this period. In addition to these Koguryo tomb paintings, one of the tombs from Paekche during the later period when their capital was at Puyo contains very fine examples of wall paintings with depiction’s of animals.In Puyo itself, may fine tiles have been discovered with landscape designs that also display the artistic sensitivities of the artisans of this period. Although almost nothing remains in the way of actual painting of the Unified Silla period (AD 668-918) except an illuminated fragment of the Avatamsaka sutra on purple paper, the artistic decoration of this fragment which is believed to have been created around AD 750 A.D. fully demonstrates the high level of accomplishment in painting of the people of this period. The Koryo Dynasty (AD 918 – 1392) was a period in which the royal household and aristocracy acted as patrons of Buddhism.One of the ways that this patronage was demonstrated was in support for the arts and painted depictions of Buddhist art are fairly plentiful from this period.Koryo Buddhist paintings were produced to be used as part of many of the rites of Buddhism and are chronicled in the “Koryo-sa”, the History of the Koryo dynasty.The richness and vivid colors used in these paintings marked a high point for Asian painting.Among the characteristics of these paintings is in the use of gold in patterns for garments and the use of transparent effects. No examples of Korean secular painting of this period remain, but writings tell us that secular painting was vibrant and that Koreans often came to China to buy paintings.Famous painters of this period according to the records were Yi Nyong and Yi Je-hyon. The adoption of Confucianism as the state philosophy during the Choson dynasty (1392 –1910)had a very profound affect on Buddhist painting.Although Buddhism continued to be popular and still had significant royal support, it never again had the artistic pre-eminence that it once enjoyed. Korean painting during this period was more influenced by Chinese artists of the Southern Song academy tradition than those of the scholar-painters of the Chinese Wu school.Korean landscape masters of this period therefore evolved their own interpretation of the classical landscape tradition.In general these keep elements of far distance in their compositions rather than confining attention to the foreground, as often was the case in most Ming dynasty paintings.Artists of the so called Zhe school (named after Zhejiang, a Chinese coastal province from which many of these artists came) also had a deep effect on Korean painting so much so that one observer of Korean art has coined the term “Korean Zhe School” to designate Korean artists of this movement.An example of this style is the Korean artist Yi Kyong-yun. Because of the successive Japanese and Manchu invasions, the seventeenth century does not really demonstrate the same vibrancy in painting that was occurring in China.The seventeenth century revival of classical styles in China had little effect in Korea.Korean painters were free to pursue their own development and it was in the eighteenth century when painting in China was losing its force that Korean painting really came into its own.The development of art in this period was purely Korean and very different from Chinese artistic traditions.One example of these new national patterns is the appearance of “Chingyoung sansu” or “real landscape”.This new style was developed by Chong Son and the early development of this technique can be seen in his painting titled “Summer Landscape”. Another uniquely Korean development of this period is the painting from daily life best exemplified by the artists Sin Yun-bok and Kim Hong-do.The pictures of Kim Tu-ryang used the technique of direct observation to render some highly original works.Work of the artist is displayed in the National Museum in Seoul and in the Pyongyang Museum.These works show experimentation with western techniques such as chiaroscuro but still contain the fine brush lines that demonstrate the clear Oriental traditions. This first experimentation with inventive forms of painting in the eighteenth century gave way to even further experimentation in the 19th Century.The work of Kim Chong-hui, also known in Korea as Ch’usa or Wandang, shows a clear understanding of Chinese traditional techniques but often takes these traditions beyond the Chinese forms in both intensity and originality of form.Kim Chong-hui is a towering figure in the art scene of this period and is without equal in his effect on the direction of Korean art during this period.Of his students, Cho Hui-ryong and Hong Se-sop although never an equal to their teacher are well regarded for their artistic accomplishments. As can be seen by the preceding short introduction, Korean painting although on the face adhering to Chinese models developed a clear Korean tradition in painting that yielded numerous unique developments.As Korea preceded into the 20th Century, Korean artists could look back on a tradition of painting that yielded many Korean forms and renderings of older more traditional techniques and subjects. = We know from textual and archaeological sources that painting was practiced in China from very early times and in a variety of media.Wall paintings were produced in great numbers in the early period of China's history, but because so little early architecture in China remained intact over the centuries, few of these large-scale paintings have survived.Paintings were also often done on screens, which served in a sense as portable walls, but these too have not survived.From the Song dynasty onwards, paintings in a variety of other more portable formats, such as the hanging scroll and the handscroll, were collected and passed on to later generations in significant quantities.In their details of everyday life and social customs, these paintings often provide information unavailable from written texts.Many paintings are especially interesting to historians because they can help us imagine what life looked like in earlier periods.Furthermore, because paintings of this period have come to be viewed as one of the highest cultural achievements in China's history, they provide valuable insight into aesthetic values and tastes that would have lasting impact on later artists and connoisseurs. In this unit we will look at two distinct aspects of painting during the Song and Yuan dynasties.Because many painters created highly detailed scenes of daily life, we can look at paintings for the information they provide about social life during this period.Painting as an art form also reached a very high standard of quality during the Song , which is considered by many to be a high point in the development of the fine arts in China.Landscape themes began to dominate painting during this period, and would continue to be a favorite subject of artists up into the modern period. For those unfamiliar with the special features of Chinese paintings such as seals and colophons, or the various formats and materials, it will be helpful to begin with the section on Technical Aspects of Chinese Painting before viewing the rest of the unit. As you go through this unit, try to keep the following questions in mind: What are the strengths and weaknesses of paintings as sources for what life was like in the past ? What social inferences can you draw from the representation of human activities in paintings? Why was painting taken up by the literati as an art form of personal expression? What aspects of Song and Yuan culture influenced the development of painting, in either the styles used or the subjects depicted? The first tomb we examine is dated from the Neolithic period, which began in China about 10,000 BC.As in other parts of the world, the Neolithic period was marked by the development of agriculture, including both the cultivation of plants and the domestication of livestock, as well as the development of pottery and textiles.Permanent settlements became possible, paving the way for more complex societies. Traditionally it was believed that Chinese civilization arose in the Yellow River valley and spread out from this center.Recent archaeological discoveries, however, reveal a far more complex picture of Neolithic China, with a number of distinct and independent cultures in various regions interacting with and influencing each other.The best known of these is the Yangshao culture (5000-3000 BC) of the middle Yellow River valley, known for its painted pottery, and the later Longshan culture (2500-2000 BC) of the east, distinguished for its black pottery.Other major Neolithic cultures were the Hongshan culture in northeastern China, the Liangzhu culture in the lower Yangzi River delta, and the Shijiahe culture in the middle Yangzi River basin, among many others. The Dawenkou culture (4300-2500 BC) based in present-day Shandong province (review map) overlapped in time with Yangshao culture, and can be considered one of the precursors of the Longshan.Over 100 tombs have been excavated at Dawenkou.The tombs have many features in common; all are rectangular pit-graves, most are oriented with the dead persons' heads toward the east, and most of the bodies had deer teeth in their hands.Some tombs had one or two items in them, but most tombs had ten or twenty items. Tomb 10 was for a woman about 50 to 55 years old and 1.6 m tall.The tomb pit was 4.2 m in length, 3.2 m in width, and 0.36 m deep.Inside the pit was a wooden chamber which contained the coffin.The woman wore a stone necklace, a jade ring, and a stone jewel on her chest.An ivory comb was by her head, a jade ax by her right thigh, a bone tube by her right knee, and a stone hammer near her left shoulder.Most of the burial items were placed on a second-level ledge outside the burial chamber. Altogether tomb 10 contained: 94 pottery containers and lids 3 jade objects 7 stone objects 6 ivory objects 1 bone tube 2 deer teeth 2 pig heads 15 pig bones 84 alligator bones Look at the diagram of the tomb above and consider the list of items. How would you describe the status of the woman in Tomb 10? MORE Jade was already widely used in the Neolithic period (note the two other jade objects in Tomb 10).To the left is a jade ax from Tomb 10. How difficult do you think it was to make this? What might be the function of the hole? China's Bronze Age began soon after 2000 B.C.The Shang dynasty (ca. 1600-1050 B.C.) had not only bronze technology, but also writing, walled cities, and a complex state structure.Shang tombs, thousands of which have been excavated, provide rich evidence of Shang material culture and ritual practices. Among the most important finds from Shang tombs are "oracle bones," recording the questions Shang kings posed to their ancestors.From them we learn of the divinities they recognized, from the high god Di to nature gods and ancestors, as well as the issues that concerned them, such as harvests, childbirth, and military campaigns.The king did not address Di directly, but called on his ancestors to act as an intermediary for him.Sacrifices to Di or the ancestors could include human sacrifices of war captives and others. Shang royal burial practices confirm the abiding interest of the Shang rulers with their ancestors.At Anyang (in present-day Henan province, review map), the last capital of the Shang, many huge royal tombs have been found.The one we examine here, the tomb of the consort Fu Hao, is the only royal Shang tomb of a member of the Shang royal family to have been found unlooted.Dated around 1250 BC, it is a tomb of modest size located outside the main royal cemetery.The tomb is a single large pit, 5.6 m by 4 m at the mouth.The floor level housed the royal corpse and most of the utensils and implements buried with her.Below the corpse was a small pit holding the remains of six dogs, and along the perimeters lay the skeletons of 16 humans.Inside the pit was a wooden chamber 5 m long, 3.5 m wide and 1.3 m high.Within the chamber was a lacquered coffin which has since rotted away.There also seems to have once been a structure built over the tomb for holding memorial ceremonies. Fu Hao was mentioned in oracle bone inscriptions as the consort of King Wu Ding and a general who participated in several military campaigns.She also presided over important sacrificial ceremonies and controlled her own estate. Altogether Fu Hao's tomb contained: 468 bronze objects including 130 weapons, 23 bells, 27 knives, 4 mirrors, and 4 tigers or tiger heads 755 jade objects 63 stone objects 5 ivory objects 564 bone objects including nearly 500 bone hairpins and over 20 bone arrowheads 11 pottery objects 6,900 pieces of cowry shell Consider the size and construction of the tomb in the photo above.Were more resources devoted to constructing the tomb or manufacturing the objects placed in it? What would have been the significance of such large numbers of objects?Why put in more weapons than any one person would need?What meaning would numbers alone have carried? The vessel to the left is made of ivory with intricate turquoise inlay. Which animal part do you recognize in the shape of the handle? Where might the ivory for burial goods have come from? In about 1050 BC the Shang dynasty was defeated in battle by armies from Zhou, a rival state to the west, which seems both to have inherited cultural traditions from the Neolithic cultures of the northwest and to have absorbed most of the material culture of the Shang.The conquerors retained their homeland in the Wei River valley in present-day Shaanxi province and portioned out the rest of their territory among their relatives and local chiefs, creating a number of local courts or principalities. The culture of the early Zhou is known to us not solely through archaeological evidence, but also through transmitted texts, such as the Book of Documents (Shujing), which describes the Zhou conquest of the Shang as the victory of just and noble warriors over a decadent and dissolute king.In these texts and bronze inscriptions alike, the rule of the Zhou kings was linked to heaven, conceived of as the sacred moral power of the cosmos.A king and a dynasty could rule only so long as they retained heaven's favor.If a king neglected his sacred duties and acted tyrannically, heaven would display its displeasure by sending down ominous portents and natural disasters. Zhou rulers, like their Shang predecessors, devoted considerable resources to tombs.The tomb we examine here dates from the earliest years of the Zhou dynasty.It is Rujiazhuang Tomb 1, dated around 950-900 BC and located in present-day Shaanxi province (review map).Based on inscriptions found on bronze vessels, scholars believe that Tomb 1 belonged to a Count of Yu and his wife, Jing Ji.They also surmise that the occupant of Tomb 2, partly overlapping Tomb 1, was Count Yu's concubine, but this is less certain.The pit of Tomb 1 is 12.2 meters deep and measures 8.4 meters by 5.2 meters at the bottom.Within it are two wooden chambers, both with coffins.One human sacrifice was placed at the entry of the tomb, and six others between the tomb wall and the chambers.Burial goods were placed both inside and outside the chambers.Outside were three chariot wheels and some pottery containers.Inside were bronze vessels, weapons, and tools.Textile imprints were found within the chambers as well.Most of the jade objects were placed on the dead. What do you notice about the number of human sacrifices compared to Fu Hao's tomb?What do you think might account for this difference? MORE Altogether the tomb of the count contained: Over 2,700 bronze objects, including 33 vessels and 13 weapons 4 musical instruments over 100 chariot parts 11 pieces of pottery over 280 jade and stone objects The tomb of his wife Jing Ji contained: 10 bronze vessels over 280 jade and stone objects Why would chariot parts and weapons be included in tombs? The Warring States Period (475-221 BC) was a time of turmoil and violence, with constant warfare between the regional states, but it was also a time of great intellectual and artistic activity, when the intellectual traditions of Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism originated. As military conflict became more frequent and more deadly, one by one the smaller states were conquered and absorbed by the half dozen largest ones.One of the more successful such states was Chu, based in the middle reaches of the Yangzi River.It defeated and absorbed fifty or more small states, eventually controlling a territory as extensive as the Shang or Western Zhou dynasties at their heights. Evidence of the distinctive style of Chu court workshops can be seen in the objects found in the tomb of Marquis Yi.Dated around 430 BC, this tomb is located in present-day Hubei Province (review map).Inscriptions on the bronzes found at the site identify the tomb as that of a marquis of the state of Zeng, a small state then under the domination of Chu.The tomb is 21m long, 16.5m wide, and 13m deep, making it 220 square meters in area.It has four chambers.The eastern chamber contained the marquis's lacquered double coffin, the coffins of eight young women, and a dog in its own coffin. The chamber also contained weapons, a chariot, and many personal items, including furniture, a zither, silk, and vessels -- but no bronze vessels. The central chamber seems to have been a ceremonial hall, with a large set of bronze bells and other instruments, as well as bronze ritual vessels. The northern chamber served as an armory and storeroom, the western chamber, where thirteen more young women were buried, as servants' quarters. MORE What do you notice about the layout of this tomb compared to earlier ones?What changes in beliefs about the afterlife might this reflect? SOME THOUGHTS Altogether Marquis Yi's tomb contained: 124 musical instruments, including bells, chimes, drums, zithers, pipes, and flutes 134 bronze vessels and other bronze household items 4,777 weapons, mostly made of bronze 1,127 bronze chariot parts 25 pieces of leather armor 5,012 pieces of lacquer ware 26 bamboo articles 5 gold objects and 4 gold belt hooks 528 jade and stone objects 6,696 Chinese characters written in ink on slips of bamboo What do you notice about the variety and amount of burial goods compared with earlier tombs? SOME THOUGHTS This jade chain is formed of moveable parts joined by links.Four of the links are partly of gold and can be detached; eight are created from openwork carving and can't be undone.In addition to the openwork carving, the chain is also decorated with relief carvings of birds and dragons or snakes.The chain can be separated into five pieces or joined into one, folded or opened. The Chinese imperial period began with the unification of China in 221 by the state of Qin and the consolidation of a huge empire under the succeeding Han dynasty (206 BC - AD 220).Consolidating the empire involved not merely geographical expansion, but also bringing together and reconciling the ideas and practices that had developed in the different states.The new state incorporated elements of Legalism, Daoism, and Confucianism in its ideology but the officials who administered the state came to be identified more and more with Confucian learning.Reflecting the development of religious practices during the Warring States period, Han art and literature are rich in references to spirits, portents, myths, the strange, and the powerful. In 1968 two tombs were found in present-day Mancheng County in Hebei province (review map).The first undisturbed royal Western Han tombs ever discovered, they belong to the prince Liu Sheng (d. 113 BC), who was a son of Emperor Jing Di, and Liu Sheng's consort Dou Wan.The structure and layout of the tombs departs from earlier traditions in significant ways.To see a drawing of Liu Sheng's tomb and learn about its layout,click here. Liu Sheng's tomb contained over 2,700 burial objects. Among them, bronze and iron items predominate.Altogether there were: 419 bronze objects 499 iron objects 21 gold items 77 silver items 78 jade objects 70 lacquer objects 6 chariots (in south side-chamber) 571 pieces of pottery (mainly in north side-chamber) silk fabric What do you notice about the number of bronze objects relative to the number of iron ones? To the left are gold and silver acupuncture needles from Liu Sheng's tomb. How do these compare with acupuncture needles today? Why include acupuncture needles in a tomb? Acupuncture needlesLength: 6-7cmsource To the left is a dagger made of iron. Why were weapons increasingly made of iron instead of bronze? In China, the style in which an individual writes has long been believed to communicate something essential about his or her personality, intellect, and abilities. Even today it is a common presumption that one can "read" the identity of the person through his or her handwriting. Young man practicing calligraphysource The European term calligraphy means "beautiful writing," and reflects an interest in ornamenting words on the page; most European calligraphy is highly stylized, regular, and decorated with flourishes, which in themselves are lacking in personal expression. Calligraphy in the West was always considered a minor art and tended to curb spontaneity, producing fairly static forms. In China, however, this was far from the case; the most widely practiced writing styles favored spontaneity, and the brush was thought to act like a seismograph in recording the movements of arm, wrist, and hand. East Asian calligraphy was established as a "high art" form well before the Tang dynasty. It has continuously enjoyed a high status among the arts ever since, and is practiced today by many people, including every school-aged child. This unit will cover calligraphy in China up through the Tang dynasty, with an emphasis on the Six Dynasties and Tang. It was during this period that calligraphy first began to flourish as an art form. By the Later Han, the basic script types had been created, and no new types developed after this time. The first writings to evaluate calligraphic style also date from this period. These texts reveal a notable shift toward seeing an expressive quality in writing that went beyond the mere ability to communicate meaning. As you go through this unit, keep the following questions in mind: Why is calligraphy highly ranked as an art form in China? How is calligraphy connected to class or status? How are the materials and techniques used by Chinese calligraphers linked to theories about calligraphy? What types of skills and knowledge are required to appreciate and evaluate calligraphy? Who collected calligraphy, and why? The idea of constructing Buddhist temples by hollowing out rock faces was brought to China from Central Asia, where monuments of this sort had been constructed for centuries. Over the years, more and more caves would be excavated and decorated as pious acts on the part of monks and artists.Most of the cave temples were begun in the north during the Northern Dynasties. Cave temples at Dunhuang were begun in 366; at Bingling and Maijishanin the early fifth century;at Yungang in 460; at Longmen and Gongxian in the early sixth century.During the Tang period additions were made to many of these cave temple complexes, especially Dunhuang and Longmen. DUNHUANG Positioned in the furthest reaches of northwestern China, Dunhuang served as a gateway into China from Central Asia. Beginning in the fifth century, and continuing through the tenth, approximately five hundred rooms were carved into the area's soft rock.These rooms were decorated with sculptures and frescoes in styles which changed over the centuries. What you see here is only a tiny fraction of the art that can still be seen in the 492 surviving caves at Dunhuang. Below is a painted room in Dunhuang, which was first completed in the Western Wei period (6thcentury). What visual effect is achieved by a room completely decorated with painted images? Does the style of the painted images evoke any particular emotional response from the viewer? Cave 282 at Dunhuang Height: 316 cm (10 ft 4 in), width: 638 cm (20 ft 11 in)source Below is a painted stone relief altar. How many of the figures can you identify? How does the Buddha image in this group compare with Buddha images you have alreadyseen in this unit? Painted stone relief altar from Dunhuangsource To the left is a huge Buddha from the mid-Tang (712-781). Do you think images like this one had an impact on the financial relationship between the clergy and laity in Tang China? If so, why? Do you remember seeing patterns like the ones in this background anywhere else in the unit? What do you think the patterns are meant to represent? SOME THOUGHTS 8th century Buddha in Dunhuang cave 130 Head height: 210 cm (6 ft 10 in)source To review images from Dunhuang shown in previous sections of this unit click here. YUNGANG In 386 the Northern Wei dynasty was declared by the Tuoba, a nomadic people from the north. As it consolidated power in north China during the fifth century, this non-Han dynasty found it beneficial to associate themselves with the burgeoning popularity of Buddhism. Despite this, the Northern Wei emperor Taiwu (r. 424-452) was persuaded by Daoist and Confucian officials at court to curb the Buddhist church. This persecution of Buddhism, begun in 446, lasted until his death in 452. Taiwu's grandson, Wencheng (r. 452-465) succeeded him and reinstated Buddhism to its previous, eminent position. One of the ways in which he made up for his grandfather's actions was by commissioning the excavation of some of the enormous caves at Yungang. Today, over 50,000 statues from the 52 caves survive. Below is an outdoor shot of Yungang.Most of the caves here (Caves 21-45) date back to the 5th century. The front walls of many of the caves have eroded away, so that some of the larger statues can now be viewed from a distance, as seen below. Caves of Yungangsource Below is an immense gilded Buddha from Yungangfrom the fifth century. It is approximately the height of a four-story house. How do you think monuments like this one fit within the history of Buddhism during the Northern Wei? Northern Wei Gilded Buddha from Yungang Height: 17 m (55 ft 8 in)source SOME THOUGHTS To the left is a close-up of figures carved into the cave wall at Yungang during the Northern Wei period (5th century).The bright colors are a modern attempt to restore the original painting. Why do you think each Buddha figure is situated in its own niche? Wall at Yungang, Cave 11source Here is another recently re-painted stone relief from Yungang, also fifthcentury. Look at the composition of the art displayed on these walls. Why do you think these images were arranged the way they are? Painted stone relief from Yungang, Cave 10source To review images from Yungang shown in previous sections of this unit click here. LONGMEN Although construction of the cave temples at Longmen were begun in the early sixth century, the bulk of the sculptures there date from the Tang period. One of the more illustrious patrons of the caves was Empress Wu, the controversial Tang ruler who commissioned approximately 380 images for the Longmen caves between the years 655 and 705. Over 100,000 images can be found in the approximately 1,300 caves of Longmen. These images range in size from 2 cm (0.8 in) to 17 m (56 ft). Here is a close-up of one of the central figure from Fengxian Monastery at Longmen, completed during the first half of the eighth century. Can you tell which deity this is by just looking at the face? Head height: 400 cm (13 ft 1 in)source Below we see a full view of the massive stone statue of which you just saw a detail. With a full view can you now identify which figure was just shown to you? Can you identify the figure second to the right of him? Buddhism brought to China a large range of divine beings, all of whom came to be depicted in images at temples, either on their walls or as free standing statues. The earliest Buddhist images in China owed much to traditions developed in Central Asia, but over time Chinese artists developed their own styles. Here we look separately at the evolution of the different divine beings in the Buddhist pantheon, then look briefly at groupings of deities. Buddhas Bodhisattvas Other Divinities Groups of Deities The images of each of these types of divine beings have been arranged in chronological order. To keep in mind geographical differences, look at the map below which shows the sites of the major temples represented here. The Song period is a good point to take stock of China's military technology. First, warfare was central to the history of the period. The confrontation between the Song and the three successive non-Chinese states to the north (Liao, Jin, and Yuan) made warfare not only a major preoccupation for those in government service, but also a stimulus to rethinking major intellectual issues. Second, we have illustrated sources for the military arts of the period, in particular, The Essentials of the Military Arts, published in the eleventh century. Most of the illustrations in this section have been drawn from this book. Third, the military technology of the Song-Yuan era can be compared to that of Europe in the same period. In this era, although China did not win all the wars, it had surprisingly advanced military technology. Warfare in this period usually aimed to capture cities, which were the centers of both commerce and government. Therefore, this unit deals primarily with the type of weapons, implements, and strategies used in attacking and defending cities. Before firearms were invented, crossbows and catapults were the most important of these weapons. Think about the following issues as you view the sections on the right. Given the military technology of the period, how much of an advantage went to the side that could afford lots of expensive weapons? In what ways was siege warfare in China similar to siege warfare in medieval Europe? What sorts of differences are significant? Why would the Chinese publish guides to the construction of weapons? What if they fell into the hands of the enemy? Would the nomads of the north, such as the Mongols, have any particular advantage in siege warfare? In the Song period, the range of acceptable subject matter for artists expanded considerably.Like poets and other writers, painters began depicting scenes of daily life with much greater frequency. Accordingly, the art works of this period often present us with a fuller and more complex look into social customs and relationships than an examination of written sources alone could provide.Our knowledge of how people dressed, interacted socially, and how and where they made a living or practiced their trade is greatly enhanced by studying paintings of the period. Gu Hongzhong (Five Dynasties), The Night Revels of Han Xizai, detailsource One issue you may want to keep in mind as you look at the paintings in this section is the merit painting has as a document of social phenomena. How useful are paintings as social and historical documents?What kind of information can they provide?What are the limitations of painting in terms of providing historical evidence?How do you decide whether or not the painter is a "reliable narrator?" The Song and Yuan periods are considered by many the high point of painting in China.Here we will look at the art of painting in these periods from three overlapping perspectives:the development of landscape as a major genre, and the elaboration of distinct styles associated with the court and the literati, and changes over the course of the time from the Northern Song to the Southern Song to the Yuan period. As you look at the paintings in this section, keep in mind the following questions: How effective are paintings as vehicles for carrying ideas?Is there a conflict between painting to represent appearance and painting to express ideas or feelings? What values encouraged the development of landscape into a subject matter for painting? Why were scholars attracted to painting as a way to express their individuality? Why did certain subject matter especially appeal to them? How different were the paintings produced by court painters and scholar painters? One of the most impressive features of courtyard homes is the flexibility of the courtyard space. Traditionally, much time was spent in these courtyards. Plants and trees often grew in courtyard spaces, providing shade from summer sun. Courtyards could be used as a place for carrying out household tasks, or as a place to relax. What factors might influence the use of this space? HINT Paved courtyardsource INTERIOR LIVING SPACES One of the most important spaces in Chinese homes was reserved for the family's ancestors. Chinese families encompassed the dead as well as the living. As a result, traditionally Chinese families, rich or poor, devoted a space to the ancestors of the family. A wooden ancestor altar from a home in Fujian Provincesource In ordinary homes this usually consisted of a small shrine set up in the main room of the house. In richer families, an entire hall may have been made into the ancestral shrine. Shrines might take the form of tables, upon which tablets were set. Families would also hang couplets on either side. Often offerings of food and incense are placed on this table to show reverence to the ancestors. The table underneath, as in the image above, would serve as extra surface area to hold offerings. SLEEPING AREAS As in the west, homes in China have places where people eat and sleep. Chinese sleeping areas often had at least one bed, but the style and the quality of beds could differ greatly. Why are these curtains around the bed? Why might the table be so much higher than what you are used to? The answer to the above question about table height refers to the uniquely Chinese piece of furniture at the back of the picture. In many northern homes, the living quarters are dominated by this kang, a raised platform with flues underneath for heating. Inhabitants slept on the kang and in the winter much of the daily activity took place there. Please click here to see examples of kangs. A bedroom from a Ming dynasty woodblock printsource Click here to see more beds from the Ming period. What other types of household furnishings can you identify? Most items of furniture, such as tables and chairs, are also common to Western usage but often have different designs that respond to specific customs or practical considerations. Please click here for more examples of furniture from the Ming dynasty. Eating was not confined to a single room. People could eat in courtyard, garden, or inside. During the winter, people often took their meals on the kang. Screens were used to divide space in Chinese homes. In the images to the left and below, what purpose do you think the screens serve? ANSWER Ming Dynasty woodblock print illustrationsource KITCHENS Chinese kitchens are different from Western kitchens. Often kitchens were not included in house plans. For richer families, cooking was done in the servants' quarters. In poorer families, cooking was done in the main room of the house or in a separate shed. In general, Chinese kitchens are more compact than Western counterparts. In the Chinese kitchen, the focus of activity generally centers on the stove, which dominates the kitchen space. In the space above the stove, there was often a nook for the kitchen god, who was said to protect the home. Can you find the nook for the kitchen god in the photograph to the right? Garden design was an art in China.One of the most common ways to make a Chinese home more elegant was to develop one or more compounds into a garden with plants, rocks, and garden buildings. Gardens were especially appreciated for their great beauty and naturalness. In time, garden design came to be regarded as a refined activity for the well-heeled and well-educated. It may be useful to note that what we are calling a garden in China is somewhat different from its counterpart in western Europe or the United States. It is not an expanse of green with incidental buildings, but rather an area in which buildings surround arrangements of rocks, plants and water; without these buildings, the Chinese garden is not a garden. The architectural elements themselves are decorative and structure how one views the scenery. Good views are many and intimate in scale, in contrast with the sweeping vistas and mathematically ordered plantings of European gardens of the same period. The enclosure of the entire compound by walls or other natural barriers marks this area off as a special precinct for private enjoyment. Gardens were an important part of the homes of the elite long before Ming times, but reached their fullest development in the late Ming in the Jiangnan area, which comprised the southeastern part of China south of the Yangtze River, including the densely-populated cultural centers of Yangzhou, Hangzhou, and Suzhou. These gardens served multiple purposes for their owners. They were extensions and developments of a family's property; they added cultural value by providing a pleasurable environment for private relaxation and entertaining friends and colleagues. In some cases they also contained a productive agricultural portion in the form of orchards or fields for cash crops that could support the needs of a large extended family. But most gardens were luxury items that demonstrated and enhanced the status of their owners. As you look at the images in this section, keep in mind the following questions: How does the garden relate to the courtyard-style home in terms of structure and design? What differences between the house and garden made the garden a desirable addition to the elegant home? What types of activities or events were more likely to take place in the garden as opposed to the house, and why? How did the ways to make homes more elegant and impressive differ in China and Europe? For periods before photography, our evidence of Chinese clothing styles comes primarily from paintings, supplemented by tomb figurines and archaeological discoveries of actual clothing, mostly of the wealthy and high-ranking.We will take a brief look at what is known of clothing from earlier periods through paintings, then a closer look at the Qing dynasty, which allows us to make use of photographs.We have also included an independent unit on textile technology, primarily on women making silk and cotton. Buddhism brought with it not just temples and images, but also ways of worshipping.Here we will look at some of the ways Buddhism is practiced in China today, looking separately at lay and clerical practice. Regional variation in the material trappings of Buddhism should be kept in mind.The biggest divide is between areas where Tibetan Buddhism is dominant (Tibet, Ningxia, Qinghai, and Inner Mongolia predominantly), and other regions of China.Buddhism arrived in Tibet by a different route, primarily from India, and although there was much interchange between Tibetan Buddhism and schools of Buddhism in Tang and later China, many differences in both doctrine and practice have persisted until today. Homes all over China in pre-modern times had a lot in common. The way of laying out a house was similar among the rich and poor, both in earlier and later times. Certain materials and techniques, such as pounded earth foundations, timber framing, and use of bricks and tile were present throughout the country. Nevertheless, houses were by no means identical in all parts of China. If we look at houses in different regions we can see much that differed from place to place. Although few examples of Chinese homes have survived from antiquity, using archeological evidence, scholars have determined that many of the basic principles of Chinese house design, such as the emphasis on orientation, layout, and symmetry go far back in Chinese history. In this unit we will examine first the basic elements of a Chinese house, then look at how houses varied by wealth and regional variation. Detail from the Ming dynasty Carpenter's Manual showing the best places to site a house. The text for the house to the right says: "If there is a rock resembling a wine jar, the house changes into a 'site of fullness.' The family will be rich and as soon as a wish is pronounced, gold and silver will come pouring out."source Orientation One of the most striking aspects of Chinese domestic architecture is the practice of making houses face south. Archeologists have found that many Neolithic-period houses were rectangular with a south-facing door. Zhou period settlements were also organized on a north-south axis. These early dwellings no longer exist, but houses in China, the earliest of which date from the Ming dynasty, also show a tendency to face south. Houses built today are also built facing south, if space allows. South-facing houses have several advantages. Can you think of some of them?HINT The importance of orientation developed into the practice of feng-shui which literally means "wind and water" but is often translated as geomancy. Click here to learn more about feng-shui (geomancy). Feng-shui concepts also dictated the kinds of material used in buildings. Combined with the location of the building, the proper building materials were thought to re-direct beneficial energy for the inhabitants. The most common building materials for houses in China are earth and wood, both of which have positive associations. Detail from a Ming period manual showing brickmakingsource The foundation of a house generally is made of pounded earth, and in some situations where wood was rare, earth was used in the construction of walls. Earth can be pounded into shape or made into bricks for walls. Click here to see how buildings are made of pounded earth and how bricks are made. For roofs, depending on the wealth of a family, the material could vary. Clay is a fairly common material for making tiles for roofing. Click here to see how tiles are made. In some areas, for poorer people, thatch and bamboo were also common material. How do these building materials differ from ones found in your environment? Where wood was available and affordable, it was used to frame houses, providing support for the roof. The wood framework systems for Chinese homes and other buildings were standardized by the Ming dynasty and differ from wooden frameworks used in other parts of the world. Ordinary people could do much of the construction, but often experts were needed for framing. Click here to see examples of wooden framing. Woodblock print from the Ming dynasty Carpenter's Manual, showing a carpenter at worksource Wood framework systems are important to consider because they determine the size of the house. The basic building block of Chinese architecture is the bay or "the space between," which is the space defined by roof supports. Chinese houses almost always consist of an odd number of bays; an even number of bays is considered unlucky. Therefore, three- or five- bay houses are common. A diagram of the supports for a three bay housesource A south-facing three bay house in Inner Mongoliasource The three-bay house can be understood to be the basic unit of Chinese homes. Depending on the size and the wealth of the family, these houses were added on to, often in standard ways. One common extension of the three-bay house was the creation of a courtyard dwelling. Traditionally, one family would share a courtyard space. Courtyard houses epitomize traditional Chinese architecture. In Beijing, depicted here, such courtyard residences have been typical since the Yuan dynasty. Can you identify a basic three-bay unit in this courtyard home? How many bays do you think are found in this dwelling? ANSWER Bird's eye view of courtyard house in Beijingsource A notable feature of the courtyard house is that the complex is fully enclosed by buildings and walls. There are no windows on the outside walls, and usually the only opening to the outside is through the front gate. Why do you think there are no windows on the outside of the compound? What would be the appeal of living in this sort of courtyard compound? SOME THOUGHTS Ming dynasty woodblock printsource It was not easy to see what a house contained by peeking through the front gate. Courtyards were constructed so that when one looked through the first doorway of the house only a brick screen was visible. Access to the rest of the house required first turning a corner. Ideally, the main door did not line up exactly with the inner quarters. What kind of impression would this type of entry give the visitor? MORE A doorway of a Beijing courtyard house showing the screen wallsource The sizes of courtyard houses vary greatly depending on the wealth, size, and the taste of the family, but generally the compounds had an inner courtyard (or a series of inner courtyards) and were built on a north-south axis. Like the simple three-bay house, the door of the main building faced south. The line drawings below show how the courtyard shape could vary while retaining balance. Diagram of a three-sided courtyard housesource Diagram of a four-sided courtyard housesource Diagram of a two-courtyard housesource As the two-courtyard house diagram above shows, new courtyards could be added creating a multi-courtyard dwelling. Doorways to the east or west could open into a garden. source Uses of rooms in a typical two-courtyard house plan at left: 1. Main entrance 2. Rooms facing the rear. The rooms facing the back, those near the entrance to the courtyard were reserved for the servants if the family was well-off. 3. First courtyard. Cooking was carried out here, and the second courtyard was a living space. 4. East and west-side rooms, for the sons and daughters, or the sons' families. 5. Inner Hall. Where the members of the family greeted guests or where family ceremonies were held. 6. Main building. Living space for parents. 7. Small side rooms. These used for children and extended family members. What can the diagram tell us about the organization of Chinese families? Why do you think the rooms at the very back of the courtyard (number six on the diagram) are reserved for the older family members? ANSWER The courtyard was not only the basis of design for Chinese homes, but was also used in the design of more complex structures such as palaces and temples. The courtyard layout can be clearly seen in the overview of the temple at left. Committed to a more egalitarian social and economic order, Mao Zedong and other leaders of the Communist Party set about fashioning a new China, one that would empower peasants and workers and limit the influence of landlords, capitalists, intellectuals, and foreigners.Spreading these ideas was the mission of the propaganda departments and teams.Political posters, reproduced from paintings, woodcuts, and other media, were displayed prominently in classrooms, offices, and homes.The artists who produced these works had to follow the guidelines set by Mao Zedong at the 1942 Yanan Forum for Literature and Art.Art was to serve politics and further the revolutionary cause. Toward that end, it must be appealing and accessible to the masses.Artists, previously fairly independent from politics, were now a key component in the revolutionary machine.“Cultural workers” were sent out to villages and factories to study folk art and learn from real life.In addition, workers and peasants were encouraged to attend art schools and create artwork of their own. The temples at which most Chinese monks and lay Buddhists worshippedwere made of wood, built to last at most a few centuries.Some were in the mountains, built for monks who wished to remove themselves from the clamor of everyday life.Lay Buddhists might make pilgrimages to these mountain temples, but there were also Buddhist temples much closer at hand in every town and city.There are no extant urban temple complexes dating from Tang times, though there are some in Japan that were based on Chinese models.Here, to capture something of the physical, visual, and material impact of China's urban temples, we take you into a temple still in use today, the Fayuan (Dharma Origin) temple in Beijing. Fayuan Temple Tour Fayuan Temple is located in Beijing. It was first completed in the late seventh century during the Tang. Over the last thousand plus years, the temple was destroyed by warfare, fire, and even an earthquake. Thus it has had to be rebuilt many times, and most of its surviving buildings date to the seventeenth-nineteenth centuries. Below is an artist's representation of a bird's eye view of the temple complex. The main gate of the temple is at bottom right. The side buildings are of secondary importance. They include halls to patron saints, halls to remember loved ones and temple offices. The next layer out is made up of buildings used by monks and nuns rather than lay people. There are dormitories, study halls, and dining halls for those who live in the temple. How do you think the layout related to the activities of the temple? Fayuan Temple layoutsource We begin our tour here at the southernmost point. The main gate is also called the mountain gate. Looking inside we see an incense burner set before the first central building and a pair of lions guarding the door, which are common to many kinds of buildings in China, not just Buddhist temples. Try to size up the effect the lions have. Can you imagine the building without the lions? Mountain gate of Fayuan Templesource MORE Passing through the gate we glance to our right and left and see the drum and bell towers respectively. As the name implies, the drum tower houses a large drum and the bell tower, a bell. When do you think these instruments are played? Why place them in their own architectural structures? Drum towersource Bell towersource The central buildings are ones of primary importance. They house the shrines to Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and other deities as well as scriptures and holy relics. Straight ahead we see the first central building. The characters over the door tell us it is the hall of the Divine Kings, the guardians of this temple. These temple buildings are good examples of traditional Chinese architecture. Even today there are attempts to incorporate elements of traditional Chinese architecture into new temple buildings. From looking at these buildings from Fayuan Temple can you guess why people today would want to continue incorporating these elements into the architecture of new buildings? Hall of the Divine Kingssource Below is the main hall for worship.Let’s go up the steps and inside. What do you think might be the function of the bronze object in the center of this picture, and the stone slabs to either side? Main Hallsource ANSWER To the left is the main altar in the temple. We see a gilded Buddha statue almost four meters tall in the center and two other figures. In front of them are a ceremonial incense burner, candles, a vase of flowers, and plates with offerings of fruit. Can you identify the type of images flanking the Buddha on either side? Calligraphy has remained a potent force in Chinese life up to the present. During the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, calligraphy continued to be a centralart of the literati, closely associated both with painting and with the social and cultural life of the educated elite.The Chinese landscape came to reflect the appreciation of calligraphy, as stones inscribed with the calligraphy of admired artists were erected at famous sites.Calligraphy could also be seen on temple name plaques, on shop signs, and on couplets pasted by the doors of even very modest homes.Calligraphy, thus, formed an ever-present part of China's visual culture. Painting of Mao Zedong wielding the brush to write the "large character poster" that launched the cultural revolution:"Bombard the Headquarters"source During the twentieth century, the social and political uses of calligraphy have been radically changed.Calligraphy is no longer an art associated primarily with the traditional scholarly elite.Not only has calligraphy been employed as a tool of revolution, but it has become a popular amateur art practiced by people of all walks of life, and artists have found ways to use it to challenge traditions rather than perpetuate them. Under Mao, words were frequently seen on the street displayed on banners or signs with revolutionary slogans.Most of the time, the style used for revolutionary slogans was bold andblock-like, with no resemblance to calligraphy produced through use of the brush. At workplaces, as seen below, prominent signs urged workersto sustain their revolutionary ardor. How do you think the common sight of slogans like these would shape how people looked on calligraphy done with a brush? 1969 rally urging resistance against American imperialismsource Workshop decorated with banner proclaiming "Under no conditions forget class struggle!"source The characters on the wall of the Kirin Municipal Oil and Grease Plant urge "arduous struggle" in 1970source Even if block-like calligraphy had revolutionary overtones, Mao and other leading revolutionaries wrote in styles much closer to traditional calligraphy.Moreover, even after most people took up writing with pencils and ball-point pens, leading party members continued to do calligraphy with traditional brushes.They would give away pieces of their calligraphy and allowed their calligraphy to be widely displayed. Mao was not only a calligrapher, but also a poet.Below is the first part of a poem he wrote in response to a poem sent to him by the literary figure, Guo Moruo.The poem extols revolutionary action, but uses traditional poetic forms. Mao's poem, "Reply to Guo Moruo, to the tune of Man jiang hong"source For other political leaders' calligraphy, click here. Mao Zedong's calligraphy was more widely displayed than that of any other leader.The poem shown above is used, at right, to decorate the memorial hall dedicated to Mao the year after his death. Mao's calligraphy in the Mao Mausoleumsource Leaders, beginning with Mao, but continuing to the present, liked to be photographed doing calligraphy or making gifts of it. Mao writing in the 1940ssource Hua Guofeng writing in the late 1970ssource In 2001 China's premier Jiang Zemin had himself photographed conferring an inscription in his own calligraphy to a society he wanted to support. What do you think a political leader has to gain from publication of a picture like this? Jiang Zemin presenting his calligraphy to a society in 2001source One also can still see calligraphy by earlier political leaders in China today.This inscription proclaiming the Confucian virtue of broad love is in the hand of Sun Yat-sen. Inscription by Sun Yat-sen in Shanxi provincesource There is still work today for calligraphers and a substantial market for calligraphy scrolls produced in the traditional manner. Many art schools now have professors of calligraphy training calligrapher-artists.Considerably less well paid are calligraphers who produce calligraphy for signs and door frames.Nevertheless, this sort of calligraphy continues to form a significant part of everyday visual culture. The entrance to this house has not only the character for "blessings" cut into the brick (visible behind the bicycle) and a four character phrase above the entrance but also two temporary paper strips on either side of the door.The phrase across the top reads "auspicious stars shine on high."The paper strip hanging down the right side reads "The two characters 'peace' and 'calm' are worth a thousand in gold."The one on the left reads "When harmony and obedience fill the home it adds a hundred blessings." Do you think whoever put up these characters cared about their calligraphy?If the auspicious meanings were legibly represented, would that have been enough? Doorway, Shanxi province, 2001source Stores, of course, also have signs announcing their names and products. Do some of the characters on these store signs seem more calligraphic than others?What makes them different? |
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