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绘画简史

艺术始终与人类的生产劳作密不可分，相辅相成。中华大家庭的各族人民在中华大地上繁衍生息，以自己的聪明智慧创造出了石窟艺术、建筑艺术、书法、绘画、雕塑、工艺 及民间美术等各种艺术形式。正是这些精美绝伦的艺术瑰宝丰富着世界艺术宝库，它创 造了人类艺术历史不朽的奇迹，向世人展示着中国--这个东方大国底蕴深厚的艺术文明 以及博大精深的艺术传统。 当我们上溯历史，追寻中华艺术神秘而悠远的轨迹，那些距今已五千年之久的彩陶器 皿上所描绘的美丽纹饰，无论是水波纹、旋转纹、网纹或锯齿纹等抽象的图案，均或隐 或显地折射出当时的社会风貌；而那些具象动物纹、人物纹线条简练，形象生动，显示 了远古艺术家对事物质朴的敏感。而比彩陶更为久远的艺术形式则是那些敲凿刻画在断崖峭壁上的岩画。中国岩画分布很 广，南部地区有四川省、云南省、贵州省、福建省；北部有阴山、黑河、阿尔泰山等。 南部地区岩画普遍用炽热的血红色调表现人们的祭祖及生产生活场面，具有强烈的视觉 效果；北部地区岩画多表现狩猎、游牧、战争、舞蹈等题材。帛画是一种在丝布上面创作的绘画作品。出土在湖南省长沙南郊楚墓的帛画《人物龙凤 图》是至今所知中国最早的绘画作品；与在另一楚墓发掘的《人物御龙图》并称姐妹篇，专家认为两图大致确立了中国工笔画的基本表现手法，在纸张出现之前，帛画不断发 展，到西汉（公元前206--公元220年）时，技法纯熟，达到高峰。

魏晋南北朝（公元420--公元581年）是中国绘画史上一个十分重要的时期。连年的战乱与频繁的朝代更替使当时的学术思想分外活跃，从而促进了艺术的发展。石窟壁画、墓室壁画、石、砖刻及漆画都具有相当规模，并且出现了开宗立派的专业画家，被尊为画 祖的顾恺之和他的卷轴画极具这一时期的代表性。被喻为"画圣"的唐代大画家吴道子是一个高产画家，据说他的作品寺廊壁画便有300余 堵，有记录的卷轴画100多件，其中以佛教、道教题材为多，另有山水、花鸟、走兽等 。 吴道子用笔起伏变化，气势雄峻而疏朗，表现出内在的精神力量。

唐朝（公元618-- 公元907年）是人物画的繁盛时期。唐代中期，政权稳定，经济富足，贵族间的享乐风 气十分盛行，以至最终发展影响到美术行业。擅长描绘宫廷女性的张萱和周昉是这个画 派的代表人物，正是这二位画家将人物画的表现转向现实生活，他们是贵族女性风俗画 的先驱，对以后中国仕女画的创作具有重大影响。著名的绢本设色长卷《清明河上图》出于宋代画家张择端之手，这幅描绘北宋都城清明 时节景象的作品，既是一件伟大的现实主义绘画艺术珍品，同时，又为后人提供了了解北宋时期大都市中商业、手工业、民俗、建筑、交通工具等情况的形象资料，具有重要 的史料文献价值。

唐朝（公元618--公元907年）是人物画的繁盛时期。唐代中期，政权稳定，经济富足， 贵族间的享乐风气十分盛行，以至最终发展影响到美术行业。擅长描绘宫廷女性的张萱和周昉是这个画派的代表人物，正是这二位画家将人物画的表现转向现实生活，他们是 贵族女性风俗画的先驱，对以后中国仕女画的创作具有重大影响。 著名的绢本设色长 卷《清明河上图》出于宋代画家张择端之手，这幅描绘北宋都城清明时节景象的作品， 既是一件伟大的现实主义绘画艺术珍品，同时，又为后人提供了了解北宋时期大都市中 商业、手工业、民俗、建筑、交通工具等情况的形象资料，具有重要的史料文献价值。江南苏州，史称"吴门"，这里人杰地灵，文人荟萃，明朝时许多著名画家在这聚会，形成一个强大画派，人称吴门画派。吴门画派领袖沈周和文徵明、唐寅及仇英，统称"吴门四家"。他们重视继承前代人的笔墨传统，关注作品中的气韵神采，将对风格的追求作为艺术的重要目的。更由于他们本身深厚的文化修养，出发于各自的美学追求，使作 品具有一定的创造性。吴门画派的笔墨技巧和表现对意境的营造，对后代具有很大的影响。

清朝初年，作为明朝（公元1368--公元1644年）遗民的朱耷（八大山人）、石涛 、髡残和弘仁，先后削发当僧人，被后人称为四大高僧画家。他们利用传统艺术形式， 面向自然，面对人生，抒发心胸志向，表达真情实感。同时，他们还重视笔墨情趣，在创作中寻求超然宁馨的感觉，以抚慰历受折磨与煎熬的心灵。著名的"扬州八怪"之所以被人称为"怪"，是因为这些画家作画不守墨矩，他们大都很有个性，孤傲清高，行为狂放，所以，被人称为"八怪"。他们的作品很多取材花鸟，以写意为主要表现方式，作品具有较强的主观色彩，令人耳目一新。尽管当时并不完全被人 理解，甚至被认为旁门左道遭到非议。事实上正是他们开创了画坛新局而，为中国花鸟 画的发展拓展了前途。 清代末年民国早期，上海成为中国最繁荣的商业城市，因而吸引了当时的很多的绘画高手到来，形成了在"扬州八怪"之后中国近代绘画史上最后一个画派--上海画派。画派的代表人物首推任伯年和吴昌硕。任伯年加强中国画写实成份，将工笔与写意结合；中国传统画法与西洋画法结合；文人画与民间绘画结合。他注重观察生活，通过表现某种历史题材，创作出《苏武牧羊》等具有爱国主义思想的作品。吴昌硕从书法篆刻入手，把金石篆刻方法引入花鸟画中，他在花鸟画的运笔、泼墨、著色等方面都有开拓，对后人的画作、画风均产生了较大影响。海派画家是在上个世纪之交涌现出来的一支活跃而富有生气的画派，他们既吸收传统，又接近现实生活，是中国古典绘画向现代绘画过渡的一个重要环节。

民间年画开始在秦汉（公元前221--公元220年）时期，是一种民间艺术形式。每逢过年 ，家家户户都在卧室、窗子、门上、灶台等处贴上年画，为的是祈求上天赐福消灾灭祸。从宋代开始镂版雕印技术后，木版年画得以发展与广泛流传，至清代发展到高峰。民间年画基本上是农民艺术，很富情节性、装饰性、趣味性，并色彩鲜艳强烈。随着时代的进步，尤其是近20年来，年画日益作为一种通俗而普及的艺术形式被保留下来，并在民间广泛流传。它以反映现实生活为主要题材，因而很受人们吉闻乐见。年画彩用新的 印制技术后，发行量极大，是至今为止数量最多的出版物之一，也是世界上读者最多的画种。 中国"五四"新文化运动使得许多画界学子学习和引进西方艺术，涌现出徐悲鸿、林凤眠等一批融合中西绘画的伟大画家。徐悲鸿吸收西方艺术中重视人体解剖、造型精确的特点，用以对中国画人物形象的刻画。他将西方绘画中的古典主义、浪漫主义、印象主义等流派艺术的精髓及要义与中国画有机地融合起来。在《画苑序》中，他总结的"新七法"，既是自己艺术实践的总结，也是对现实主义美术理论研究的成果。徐悲鸿对中国美术教育做出了开创性的贡献。林风眠虽然也是融合中西画法的艺术大师，然而，他笔下的中国画和传统中国画有很大距离，表现形式很大程度属"西方化"。但林风眠作品在总体上传达了浓重的中国画韵味，空灵、含蓄、蕴籍而富有诗意。 齐白石是继海派画家之后将传统中国画推上一个新高峰的绘画大师。他对诗文、书画、篆刻都有很深的造诣。他成功地将民间艺术情趣融入文人画中，不仅扩展了文人画的表现题材，同时更新了文人画的艺术境界，开创了具有时代精神和生活气息的写意花鸟画的新篇章。他的作品洋溢着健康、快乐、恢谐、倔强、自足和蓬勃的生命力。 黄宾虹是中国近百年来山水画的代表，艺术特征可用"浑厚华兹"来概括。黄宾虹作品"黑蒙蒙"的特点是因为他在晚年发现了夜山的"雄奇、黑密、沉静"，这也是一种境界与 美学价值的发现。

20世纪中叶，山水画家纷纷崛起。江西省的钱岩松、傅抱石、魏紫熙；广西省的黎雄才、关山月；上海市的贺天健；西安市的赵望云、石鲁；浙江省的陆俨少等活跃于画坛；另外，晚年定居在中国台湾的张大千在山水画方面也很有水平。在这其中，最具有代表性的是李可染。李可染将西方绘画中表现光影的方法成功地融入 到山水画的创作之中，但仍不失传统中国画特征。2O世纪兴起的现代中国人物画，广泛吸收西方美术技巧，表现新的时代生活，在50年代成就就很突出。黄胄是其中很有创新精神的杰出的人物画家，黄胄既重视中国绘画的优良传统，又力求造型的准确。他的作品具有强烈的生活气息，笔下的景象，使人有身临其境的感觉。 油画是明代、清代之交从西方传入中国的画种。到20世纪初，李叔同、李铁夫、陈抱一 、徐悲鸿、林风眠、刘海粟等画坛学子纷纷出国学习，并将欧洲油画技法引入中国。当 时活跃于在油画坛上的还有颜文梁、常书鸿、吕斯百和潘玉良等。20世纪50年代以后，油画进入以历史题材为主的创作时期，其中，董希文创作的《开国大典》最突出。2O世纪80年代，中国进入改革开放新时期，油画同中国美术的创作一样，发生了重大转变。其中以《父亲》、《西藏组画》等一批具有现实主义特色的油画影响最大。80年代中后期的油画作品出现了新的艺术形式和风俗，新尚谊的《瞿秋白》、《歌唱家肖扬》；杨飞云的《北方姑娘》；何大桥的《静物》等在肖像和风景油画上显示了古典主义风格和写实油画细腻、深入的特点。这期间还有刘德润、李燕的《沂蒙娃 》；王玉琦的《腊月》；高天雄的《老乡》和费正的《包饺子》等写实手法描绘乡土风情的作品。有姚仲华的《啊，土地》；官其格的《高原红色》等表现主义的作品；有苏笔柏的《大娘家》；周思聪的《正午》等简括写意手法的作品；有王怀庆的《伯乐》； 刘秉江的《塔吉克新娘》等很具装饰艺术色彩的作品。另外，闻立鹏的《红烛颂》具有象征意义；韦启美的《讲座》具有构成主义倾向；高立达的《加利福尼亚高速公路》具有抽象主义成份。

总之，到80年代末期，中国油画出现了空前的多样化的局面。《只树孤独图》是世界公认最早的木刻版画，它出现在唐代懿宗年间（公元868年）。中国最早的木刻版画是作为书籍的插图，20世纪30年代初，在鲁迅的倡导和支持下，新兴版画开始蓬勃发展。版画创作者不仅以中国传统的木刻为基础，并受到西方创作版画的影响，以现实主义的创作方法和比较写实的手法表现生活，出现了一大批充溢着旺盛活力和鲜明时代精神的作品。进入80年代后，版画创作的艺术风格更加多样化，品种、体裁、样式也急剧增加，版画创作呈现出全新的局面。 蓬勃发展于20世纪5O年代的中国现代民间绘画，具有非常丰富的想象力，创作者不受专业画法的约束，甚至不受真实现象和常规理制约，特色鲜明，在中国当代美术史上占有着一席之地。

Chinese Painting

Chinese traditional painting dates back to the Neolithic Age about 6,000 years ago. The excavated colored pottery with painted human faces, fish, deer and frogs indicates that the Chinese began painting as far back as the Neolithic Age. Over the centuries, the growth of Chinese painting inevitably reflected the change of time and social conditions. From Primitive to Modern

A painted pottery basin

In its earliest stage, Chinese prehistoric paintings were closely related to other primitive crafts, such as pottery, bronzeware, carved jade and lacquer. The line patterns on unearthed pottery and bronzeware resemble ripples, fishing nets, teeth or frogs. The animal and human figures, succinct and vivid, are proofs to the innate sensitivity of the ancient artists and nature.

A rock painting

Paintings or engravings found on precipitous cliffs in Sichuan, Yunnan and Guizhou in Southwest China; Fujian in East China and Mount Yinshan in Inner Mongolia; Altai in China's extreme west and Heihe in the far north, are even more ancient. Strong visual effects characterize the bright red cliff paintings in southern China that depict scenes of sacrificial rites, production activities and daily life. In comparison, hunting, animal grazing, wars and dancing are the main themes of cliff paintings in northern China.Before paper was invented, the art of silk painting had been developing. The earliest silk painting was excavated from the Mawangdui Tomb in central China of the Warring States Period (476-221 BC). Silk painting reached its artistic peak in the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD25).Following the introduction of Buddhism to China during the first century from India, and the carvings on grottoes and temple building that ensued, the art of painting religious murals gradually gained prominence.

Grotto mural in Dunhuang

China plunged into a situation of divided states from the third to the sixth century, where incessant wars and successions of dynasties sharpened the thinking of Chinese artists which, in turn, promoted the development of art. Grotto murals, wall murals in tomb chambers, stone carvings, brick carvings and lacquer paintings flourished in a period deemed very important to the development of traditional Chinese painting The Tang Dynasty (618-907) witnessed the prosperity of figure painting, where the most outstanding painters were Zhang Xuan and Zhou Fang. Their paintings, depicting the life of noble women and court ladies, exerted an eternal influence on the development of shi nu hua (painting of beauties), which comprise an important branch of traditional Chinese painting today.

Painting of beauties

Beginning in the Five Dynasties (907-960), each dynasty set up an art academy that gathered together the best painters throughout China. Academy members, who were on the government payroll and wore official uniforms, drew portraits of emperors, nobles and aristocrats that depicted their daily lives. The system proved conducive to the development of painting. The succeeding Song Dynasty (960-1127) developed such academies into the Imperial Art Academy.

Landscape painting

During the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) the "Four Great Painters" -- Huang Gongwang, Ni Zan, Wei Zhen and Wang Meng -- represented the highest level of landscape painting. Their works immensely influenced landscape painting of the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties.The Ming Dynasty saw the rise of the Wumen Painting School, which emerged in Suzhou on the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Keen to carry on the traditions of Chinese painting, the four Wumen masters blazed new trails and developed their own unique styles.When the Manchus came to power in 1644, the then-best painters showed their resentment to the Qing (1644-1911) court in many ways. The "Four Monk Masters" -- Zhu Da, Shi Tao, Kun Can and Hong Ren -- had their heads shaved to demonstrate their determination not to serve the new dynasty, and they soothed their sadness by painting tranquil nature scenes and traditional art. Yangzhou, which faces Suzhou across the Yangtze River, was home to the "Eight Eccentrics" - the eight painters all with strong characters, proud and aloof, who refused to follow orthodoxy. They used freehand brushwork and broadened the horizon of flower-and-bird painting. By the end of the Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, Shanghai, which gave birth to the Shanghai Painting School, had become the most prosperous commercial city and a gathering place for numerous painters. Following the spirit of the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou, the Shanghai School played a vital role in the transition of Chinese traditional painting from a classical art form to a modern one. The May 4th Movement of 1919, or the New Culture Movement, inspired the Chinese to learn from western art and introduce it to China. Many outstanding painters, led by Xu Beihong, emerged, whose paintings recognized a perfect merging of the merits of both Chinese and Western styles, absorbing western classicism, romanticism and impressionism. Other great painters of this period include Qi Baishi, Huang Binhong and Zhang Daqian. Oil painting, a western art, was introduced to China in the 17th century and gained popularity in the early 20th century. In the 1980s Chinese oil painting boomed.

New Year Painting

Then came popular folk painting -- Chinese New Year pictures pinned up on doors, room walls and windows on the Chinese New Year to invite heavenly blessings and ward off disasters and evil spirits - which dates back to the Qin and Han dynasties. Thanks to the invention of block printing, folk painting became popular in the Song Dynasty and reached its zenith of sophistication in the Qing. Woodcuts have become increasingly diverse in style, variety, theme and artistic form since the early 1980s. Classification of Chinese Traditional Painting

Four treasures of the study

Traditional Chinese painting has its special materials and tools, consisting of brushes, ink and pigments, xuan paper, silk and various kinds of ink slabs. Based on different classification standards, Chinese traditional painting can be divided into several groups, as follows:

1. Techniques

According to painting techniques, Chinese painting can be divided into two styles: xieyi style and gongbi style. Xieyi, or freehand, is marked by exaggerated forms and freehand brushwork. Gongbi, or meticulous, is characterized by close attention to detail and fine brushwork. Freehand painting generalizes shapes and displays rich brushwork and ink techniques.

2. Forms

The principal forms of traditional Chinese painting are the hanging scroll, album of paintings, fan surface and long horizontal scroll. Hanging scrolls are both horizontal and vertical, usually mounted and hung on the wall. In an album of paintings the artist paints on a certain size of xuan paper and then binds a number of paintings into an album, which is convenient for storage. Folding fans and round fans made of bamboo strips with painted paper or silk pasted on the frame. The long, horizontal scroll is also called a hand scroll and is usually less than 50 centimeters high but maybe up to 100 meters long.

3. Subjects

Traditional Chinese paintings can be classified as figure paintings, landscapes and flower-and-bird paintings. Landscapes represent a major category in traditional Chinese painting, mainly depicting the natural scenery of mountains and rivers. The range of subject matter in figure painting was extended far beyond religious themes during the Song Dynasty (960-1127). Landscape painting had already established itself as an independent form of expression by the fourth century and gradually branched out into the two separate styles: blue-and-green landscapes using bright blue, green and red pigments; and ink-and-wash landscapes relied on vivid brushwork and inks. Flower-and-bird painting deviated from decorative art to form its own independent genre around the ninth century. Traditional Chinese painting, poetry, calligraphy, painting and seal engraving are necessary components that supplement and enrich one another. "Painting in poetry and poetry in painting" has been a criterion for excellent works. Inscriptions and seal impressions help explain the painter's ideas and sentiments and also add beauty to the painting.

钟繇

钟繇(151－230 A.D)., 字元常，三国魏颍川(今河南许昌)人。颖川长社（今河南长葛）人。或作许昌人。历官侍中尚书仆射，封亭东武侯。魏初任相，明帝时迁太傅，世称"钟太傅",卒谥成侯。他的书法，以曹喜、蔡邕、刘德升为师，博采众长，兼善各体，尤精小楷。结构朴实严谨，笔势自然，开创了由隶书到楷书的新貌。和晋代王羲之并称"钟王"。他的书法历代为人所重视。钟的真迹，早已失传，宋代以来法帖中所刻的小楷《宣示表》，《荐季直表》等都是晋唐人临摹本。

画祖——顾恺之

在中国绘画史上，魏晋南北朝(公元420——公元581年)是一个非常重要的历史时期。长期南北战乱，朝代频繁更替，使当时的文化思想格外活跃，促进了艺术的发展。这一时期的石窟壁画、墓室壁画、石刻、砖刻以及漆画等都已达到相当高的水平，出现了开宗立派的专业画家、书法家，作为奠基中国绘画理论基础的“六法论”也在这一时期提出。在绘画上，被尊为画祖的顾恺之和他的卷轴画最具有代表性。 顾恺之(公元344——公元405年)是东晋时期（公元317——公元420年）的

画家。原名长康，字虎头，晋陵（今江苏无锡）人。出生在一个官僚家庭，年青时做过官，有机会游览各地的风景。他精通诗文，历史上关于他的轶事有不少记载。还特别注意表现人物的特点。有个叫裴楷的人脸颊上有三根长汗毛，别人为他画像时，都不画出来，顾恺之却把这三根汗毛画得特别突出，而强调对象的特征。可见顾恺之善于用特征衬托人物的个性。

《洛神赋图》是根据三国时期曹操的儿子曹植所写《洛神赋》创作。《洛神赋》描绘了曹植与洛神相逢又相别的情节，发挥了高度的艺术想象力。画家注重对人物情态的刻画，山石、树木都富有装饰性。这一作品，与同一时期的敦煌壁画有相近的风格，对后世中国画产生了深远的影响。

顾恺之在绘画理论方面也很有成就，他留下来的论著有《论画》、《画云台山记》等。他主张作画要形神兼备，他提出的“传神论”成为中国绘画的基本理论之一。根据记载，顾恺之的作品有七十多件，他画过历史故事、神佛、人物、飞禽走兽、山水等题材。可惜，现在能看到的只有《女史箴图》、《洛神赋图》和《列女仁智图》三幅卷轴画摹本了，它们是现在所知道最早的卷轴画。

Gu Kaizhi -- Originator of Painting

Chinese painting came a long way during the 300-year period that saw the rise and fall of the Three Kingdoms (220-280), Jin Dynasty (265-420) and Northern and Southern Dynasties (420-581). Apart from the chaos of war and dynastic changes during this period, active intellectual life of different schools also provided a great impetus for artistic development. Well-known grotto murals, tomb paintings, stone carvings, brick carvings and lacquered paintings were produced at the time, and a number of virtuosos emerged in Chinese calligraphy and painting. Certain painting theories, such as the Graphic Theory and the Six-Rule Theory that form the theoretical basis for present-day Chinese painting, were also put forward. Gu Kaizhi, known as the founder of traditional Chinese painting, and his scroll paintings, represented the painting style of the period.

Gu was born into an official family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province and served as a government officer at a young age. Having toured many beautiful places, Gu was proficient in writing poetry and essays; Chinese art history abounds in anecdotes about him.

When the construction of a temple was planned for Jiankang (Nanjing) and the monks and abbot could not collect enough money to build it, a young man offered to donate a large sum of money. He suggested he would draw a picture of the Buddha on the wall and, in the process, collect donations from curious passersby. For three consecutive days, thousands of people flocked to see the young man at work. By adding the final touches to the picture, the Buddha seemed to come alive, and the viewers cheered and applauded the young man's artistry. Hence, the money needed for the consummate construction of the temple was obtained.

The young man who paid great attention to the details that revealed the characteristics of his subjects was none other than Gu Kaizhi.

Gu was once was asked to paint Pei Kai's portrait, a man with three, long, fine hairs on his face that had been ignored by other painters. Gu laid great emphasis on the three hairs, and Pei was very satisfied. Another time, Gu painted a man named Xie Kun standing in the midst of mountains and rocks. When asked the reason for the setting, Gu explained that Xie loved to travel and see beautiful mountains and rivers. Such stories demonstrate Gu's skill of creating atmospheres that enhanced the characteristics of his subjects.

The theme of the Luoshen Appraisal Painting (luo shen fu) was drawn from the article, Luoshen Appraisal, written by Cao Zhi, son of the Wei Emperor Cao Cao. The painting depicts the meeting between Cao Zhi and the Goddess Luoshen at Luoshui River, vividly capturing the mood of their first meeting and eventual separation. Gu emphasized his subjects' expressions, with the stones, mountains and trees having an ornamental purpose. Gu's paintings, which greatly influenced later traditional Chinese paintings, are similar in style to the Dunhuang murals.

Gu also made great advances in summarizing painting theories. His theoretical works included Painting Thesis and Notes on Painting Yuntai Mountain. Gu paid considerable attention to the vivid expressions of his subjects to expose their spirit. His Graphic Theory later became a basic theory for traditional Chinese painting. According to historical records, Gu created more than 70 paintings based on historical stories, Buddha, human figures, birds, animals, mountains and rivers. His three existing scroll paintings include the Nvshi Zhen Painting, Luoshen Appraisal Painting and Lienv Renzhi Painting -- the earliest examples of scroll paintings.

画圣——吴道子

在中国古代艺术史上，有三位艺术家被称作"圣"人：一位是晋代（公元265--公元420年）王羲之，被称为书圣；一位是唐代（公元618--公元907年）杜甫，被称为诗圣；还有一位被誉为画圣，那就是唐代的吴道子。

吴道子一生主要活动在唐朝开元、天宝年间(公元713--公元755年)。吴道子出生在阳翟(今河南禹县)，小时侯就失去双亲，生活贫困，为了生计向民间画工和雕匠学习，由于他刻苦好学，才华出众，20岁时，就已经很有名气。唐代皇帝把他召入宫中担任宫廷画师，为他改名道玄。成了御用画家的他，没有皇帝的命令，不能擅自作画。这样，一方面对他这样一个平民意识很强的艺术家是一种约束和限制，另一方面，他得到了最优厚的生活条件，不再到处流浪，可以施展自己的艺术才华。吴道子性格豪爽，喜欢在酒醉时作画。传说他在描绘壁画中佛头顶上的圆光时，不用尺规，挥笔而成。在龙兴寺作画的时候，观看者水泄不通。他画画时速度很快，像一阵旋风，一气呵成。当时的都城长安是中国的文化中心，汇集了许多著名的文人和书画家。吴道子经常和这些人在一起，相互促进、提高技艺。

吴道子主要从事宗教壁画的创作，他创作的作品题材广泛，数量也很大。据说寺廊壁画有三百余件，有记录的卷轴画有一百多件。其中佛教、道教题材最多，还有山水、花鸟、走兽等。《送子天王图》这幅画反映了吴道子的基本画风，他打破了长期以来历代沿袭顾恺之的那种游丝线描法。吴道子开创兰叶描，用笔讲究起伏变化，和内在的精神力量。他在创作的时候，处于一种高度兴奋与紧张状态，很有点表现主义的味道。

Wu Daozi, Sage in Chinese Painting

In Chinese history, three people are revered as sages: the calligrapher Wang Xizhi of the West Jin Dynasty (265-316), the poet Du Fu of the Tang Dynasty (618-907) and the painter Wu Daozi, also of the Tang Dynasty.

Wu's most prolific period was during the Kaiyuan and Tianbao eras (713-755) in the Tang Dynasty. Born in Yangzhai (Yu County in Henan Province), Wu lost both his parents at a young age and lived a hard life in his early years. He learned how to make a living from folk artists and sculptors. Because Wu studied hard and was talented in art, he earned himself a good reputation as a painter by the time he was 20 years old. Emperor Xuanzong invited Wu as an imperial painter in the court, naming him Daoxuan. As an imperial painter, Wu only painted at the emperor's request, which was a big restriction for a civilian painter. On the other hand, the court provided the best living conditions and was an outlet for artistic creativity.

Wu's character was unrestrained, direct and indifferent to trivial matters, and it is known he always drank while painting. It is also said that when Wu drew the halo around Buddha's head in a mural, he only used his brushes without drafting the measurements first; when he painted at Longxing Temple, the temple was always packed with observers. Wu moved his brush quickly, and most of his works were accomplished in a single session. Chang'an (present day Xi'an), capital of the Tang Dynasty, was the cultural center of the time where many famous men of letters and artists lived. Wu had many opportunities to stay with them, which helped improve his painting skills.

Wu mainly created religious murals all his life and his abundant works had a wide range of subjects. According to records, Wu painted over 300 murals and more than 100 scrolls. While many of them involved Buddhism and Taoism, Wu also drew mountains, rivers, flowers and birds. The Presentation of Buddha is his most representative work. Unlike his predecessor Gu Kaizhi, whose line strokes were slender and forceful but lacked variety, Wu's strokes were full of change and vigor, expressing the internal world of his subjects. Wu was always in great ferment when he was painting, and his works exhibit an expressionist style.

美术史论家——张彦远

张彦远 《历代名画记》

中国唐代时期的（公元618——公元907年）张彦远，字爱宾，蒲州猗氏(今山西省临猗县)人。他出生在宰相家庭，学问渊博，擅长书画。曾经任职官左仆射补阙、祠部员外郎、大理卿。编写的著作有《法书要录》、《彩笺诗集》和中国第一部绘画通史《历代名画记》。

《历代名画记》这本书总结了古人有关画史和画论的研究成果，继承发展了史和论相结合的传统，开创了编写绘画通史的完备体例。作者尽可能运用丰富资料，从当时的理论认识水平探讨绘画史的发展和内在联系，并以系统的绘画史料来支持自己的理论认识。全书用大量的篇幅阐述绘画史和某些画科的发展演进，讨论重大的理论问题。传记部分比较全面地汇集画家生平、思想、创作等有关资料，充分引证古人的评价，但又不受前人的局限，做到有分寸

地评价画家的得失。此外，作者更能从绘画创作欣赏的全过程着眼，把著录、鉴藏、流传、以至装裱也纳入进研究画史的必要组成部分，对于中国画史的研究提出了完整的体系。这本书长期以来被认为是中国第一部系统完整的绘画通史，具有当时绘画“百科全书”的性质，在中国绘画史学的发展中，具有承先启后的里程碑的意义。

总结张彦远的艺术观点主要有几项特征，他在肯定谢赫等人关于绘画具有道德的，政治的功能以外，更重视绘画本身的意义。张彦远强调绘画需要天才，反对呆板的死画，他强调绘画技巧的根本在于立意和用笔。他还强调绘画艺术的文化品味，特别看重画家的人格，他最早提出绘画是有教养、有学问、有独立人格的读书人的事业。张彦远在中国古代理论上所取得的成就是历史性的，从他较早的研究分析美术作品来看，称他是中国最早的艺术理论家、批评家一点也不夸张。

Art Historian: Zhang Yanyuan

Zhang Yanyuan, styling himself Aibin, was the art historian of the Tang Dynasty (618-907). Born into a chancellor family in Yishi of Puzhou (Linqi County of Shanxi Province), Zhang took office as zuopushe buque, ministry counselor of the Ci department and chief minister of Dali. He was a learned scholar and excellent painter and calligrapher. Zhang's works include Fashu Yaolu, Collection of Poems on Color Paper and the first general history of art -- Records of Historical Famous Paintings.

Records of Historical Famous Paintings gave a summation of ancients' achievements in painting history. Following the tradition of combining historical facts and painting critics, Zhang initiated the style of general art history. By using abundant materials, Zhang's research focused on the development and internal relations of art history, using systematic historical painting materials to support his theories. The book extensively covered the development and significant theories of the history of painting. The biography section consisted of comprehensive records of painters' lives, thoughts and works. Zhang passed equitable judgments on painters by quoting predecessors, yet still developed his own ideas. From the point of view of the whole process of art creation and appreciation, Zhang brought recording, appraising, collecting, circulating and even mounting to the list of indispensable components, which gave rise to the integral research system of Chinese painting history. For a long time, the book was regarded as China's first publication on the general painting history and bibliography of painting of the period. It had a unique position in the development of Chinese painting as a link between the past and future.

In general, there are several features to Zhang's artistic theory. Apart from confirming Xie He's theory that painting had moral and political functions, Zhang put more emphasis on the meaning of painting itself. Opposing dull and stereotyped painting styles, Zhang stressed that painting needs ingenious creation and that the basic skill of painting lay in conception and stroke. A painter's cultural taste and personality were also very important to painting. Zhang was the first to forward the theory that painting was a career of moral scholars who had knowledge and unique personalities. As one of the earliest art theorists and critics, Zhang contributed many achievements to the theory of ancient painting history.

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安徽黄山风景区

1990年12月，安徽黄山风景区被联合国科教文组织评为“世界自然和文化遗产名录”。

黄山屹立在中国安徽省南部（北纬30度1分，东经118度1分），盘垣于歙、黟、太平、休宁四县之间，方圆250平方公里，精华部份154平方公里。黄山原称作黟山，因传说轩辕皇帝曾在此修身炼丹，故名。黄山不仅以奇伟俏丽、灵秀多姿著称于世，还是一座资源丰富、生态完整、具有重要科学和生态环境价值的国家级风景名胜区，属世界文化与自然遗产，已被列入《世界遗产名录》。

早在一亿多年前的地壳运动中，黄山便已跃起于地表之上，后又经过第四纪冰川的洗礼，终于形成了气势磅礴，高峰穿云的天下奇山。

154平方公里的景区内，峰如林海，危崖突兀、幽壑纵横。这种地貌的形成是由于其山体为粗粒花岗岩组成，花岗岩常常发育成直立或近乎直立的主要筋理。由于浸蚀崩裂的外力作用，使岩石形成了巨大的柱状体，这样便出现了巍峨奇特的山峰，幽深如削的山谷。主峰莲花峰海拔1864米，与平旷的光明顶、险峻的天都峰一起，雄居在景区中心，还有77座千米以上的山峰分布在四周。“峰奇石奇松更奇，云飞水飞山亦飞“。峰壑间，巧石星罗棋布，有名可数者120余处。其形成或似珍禽异兽，或如神话人物，千姿百态，妙趣横生。遍布峰壑的黄山松，破石而生，盘结于危岩峭壁之上，挺立于峰崖绝壑之中，或雄壮挺拔，或婀娜多姿，显示出顽强的生命力。黄山无处不松，奇特的古松，难以胜数。最著名者有迎客松、卧龙松、探海松、黑虎松等30余株。多少年来，它们抵御风吹雨打，霜剑冰刀，吸取岩石中的点滴水分和营养，迎着阳光稳稳地屹立于峰崖之上。黄山云流动于千峰万壑之间，或成涛涛云海，浩瀚无际，或与朝霞、落日相映，色彩斑斓，壮美瑰丽。

黄山温泉，古称“灵泉”、“汤泉”、“朱砂泉”，水质清澈，可饮可浴，是黄山一绝。黄山是长江与钱塘江两大水系的分水岭。特殊的地理位置，构成36条大峡谷、形成36源，汇流24溪。山水迸泻，形成飞瀑，悬垂如练，溅珠喷玉。“山中一夜雨，处处挂飞泉”，瀑布中著名者有“人字瀑”、“百丈泉”、和“九龙瀑”。

由于黄山花岗岩体垂直节理十分发育，断裂和裂隙纵横交错，形成瑰丽多姿的花岗岩洞穴与孔道，使之重岭峡谷，关口处处。更有历代丰厚的文化积淀，摩崖石刻等名胜古迹200多处。加上日出、日落、云雾、松涛、佛光、秋色、雾松、冰挂等自然奇观，幽谷泉鸣，鸟语花香，整个景区犹如一幅幅立体的壮丽画卷。

黄山是美的综合体，是天地造化的宠儿。随便一处，或松或石、或云海清泉，无一不美，无处不奇，置身其间，使人似觉得到了天上人间，不得不感叹大自然的神奇力量。 她是人类最珍贵的遗产和世界最著名的旅游胜地之一。美丽的黄山，以她博大的胸怀，张开了热情的手臂，迎接着五湖四海的朋友们。

Anhui Huangshan Mountains Scenic Spot

In 1990 December, Anhui Huangshan Mountains Scenic Spot was collected into "Directory of World Cultural and Natural Heritage" by the UN Organization of Science, Education and Culture.

Huangshan Mountains stands towering in the south of Anhui province (north latitude 30.1 degree, eastern longitude 118.1 degree), near to She, Yi, Taiping and Xiuning four counties; it occupies an area of 250 km2, of which 154 km2 is the core of the scenery. As it was said that Xueyuan emperor was ever cultivating his morality and developing pills of immortality here, Huangshan Mountains was originally named Yi Mountain. Not only is Huangshan Mountains famous for its beauty and elegance, but it is a scenic spot of national level with its high value in science and ecological environment, it has rich natural resources and a comprehensive ecology; it belongs to the family of world heritage of culture and nature, and has been collected into "the Directory of World Cultural and Natural Heritage".

As early as millions of years ago when the Earth's crust was in an overactive state, Huangshan Mountains had been erecting high above the sea level; it had finally grown into a vigorous scene through the tempering of the century of the 4th Glacier.

There is quite a scene inside the 154km2-acerage of Huangshan Mountains. The development of this breathtaking state is made up of many coarse types of granite, which often primarily grows into up-straight state. Because of the force of erosion and collapsing, the rock gradually is changing into huge post-like shape, thus helps the come-into-being of the imposing queer peaks and valleys. The main peak is called Lotus Peak, 1864 meters in height; it is in hand-in-hand state with the flat Guang Mingding, and the precipitous Tuandu Peak; Lotus is standing at the center of the scene, with other 77 high peaks, all of which are more than one thousand meters high, scattering nearby. Many exquisite rocks are distributed among these steepy peaks, of which, 120 are formally named. Their shape resemble with rare birds and animals, figures in fairy tales. The mountains area is primarily covered with Huangshan pine tree, they stubbornly break the rock and emerge off the soil; you can find them even in the most dangerous place, such as the cliff and the deep valley, posing their muscularity frankly. Huangshan pine tree is in a dominant position in this area, there are around 30 kinds of them have received general recognition, such as Yingke Pine, Wolong Pine, Tanhai Pine, Black Tiger Pine, etc. People are astonished at their perseverance and vitality, which helps them survive the cold wind, heavy rains, snows, and other elements. Huangshan Cloud shuttles back and forth among the countless peaks, their vastness and generosity can be ranked abreast with the sea; they present a beautiful scene with the dawn fog and the setting sun.

Huangshan Hot Spring, which had ever been called as "Ling Spring", "Tang Spring", "Vermilion Spring", is celebrated for its fresh, clean and cool nature, and it can serve various purposes, such as drinking, bathing; it is a wonder of Huangshan. Huangshan Mountains is the watershed of the two main rivers, Yangtze River and Qiantang River. The special geographic position has cultivated the development of 36 big canyons, the sources of 36 branches, therefore, Huangshan is also famous for its waterfalls, and some famous ones are "Renzi Fall", "Baizhang Fall", and "Nine Dragons Fall".

As the vertical cleavage of the rocks is very finely developed, there have formed many magnificent and beautiful caves and tunnels, which add another crucial credit to the beauty of Huangshan. On the walls of these caves and tunnels, people found more than 200 valuable sculptures, writing and paintings, inscribing the history and culture of ancient times. Huangshan Mountains virtually presents a long three-dimensional picture scroll, with the rising and setting sun, the cloud and the fog, the pine trees and the religious smell, the beauty of the Autumn and glaciers, the valleys and the singing birds, the perfume of the flower and its culture.

Huangshan is the integration of natural beauty, the favorite son of the universe. It is here that wherever you go, you will find yourself surrounded by strange, beautiful, dangerous scene; each corner is an outstanding masterpiece of God, an earthly paradise, at which you couldn't help yourself sighing with feelings at the majestic power of nature. Huangshan Mountains is one of the most precious heritages of human kind, and one of the most famous scenic spot in the world. Huangshan Mountains opens her generous arms to the guests from allover the world.

湖南武陵源风景名胜区

1996年12月， 湖南武陵风景名胜区被联合国教科文组织评为”世界自然遗产”。

武陵源风景名胜位于湖南省西北部，固春具有突出价值的地质构造，奇特多姿的地貌景观、完整的生态系统，珍奇的地质遗迹景观和多姿彩的气候景观，于1992年12月正式被联合国教科文组织作为自然遗产列入《世界遗产名录》。

武陵源的美丽概括为奇、奥、秀、幽、野五字。武陵源峰石奇特，拨地而起，陡峭峻峨：千峰万壑，如万丛珊瑚出于碧海深渊，深不可测，奥妙无穷：植被繁茂，种类繁多，武陵松生长奇特，造型奇美；溪、泉、湖、瀑、多姿多态，幽谷飞花，悦目畅神；云涛雾海，神秘莫测，千变万化；溶洞壮美，构景妖烧，妙趣横生。

武陵源共有峰林3103座，这在世界峰林“家族”中是独一无二的。武陵源的水景有“水八百”之称，以“乐旱不断流，久雨水碧绿”为特色。武陵源生物宝库区内植物垂直带谱明显，群落结构完整，生态系统平衡，蕴藏着众多的古老珍贵植物和中国特有植物资源。首批列入《中国珍稀濒危保护植物名录》的重点保护植物有35种。

武陵源具有观赏价值的景体宏大，总面积为390．8平方千米，其中观赏核心区为264平方千米。其自然景观绚烂多彩，种类齐全。群山之峥嵘，峰林奇特，峡谷之幽深，溶洞之神奥，生态之齐，。烟云之幻变，水景之丰富，空气之清新，气候之宜人，环境之幽雅等自然特色，被誉为“科学的世界，艺术的世界，童话的世界，神秘的世界”。

Wulingyuan Tourist Site in Hunan

Excerpt from the website of China World Heritage, May 2001 In 1996 December, The Son of God Mountain was honored as "World Natural Heritage" by the UN Organization of Science, Education and Culture.

Wulingyuan tourist site is situated in the northwest of Hunan province; it features geologic structure of outstanding value, beautiful physical contours, complete ecosystem, rare cultural relics and various climate and scenes; the UN Organization of Science, Education and Culture listed collected it into "Directory of World Heritage" in 1992 December.

The charm of Wulingyuan could be summarized as following, strange, proud, delicate, calm and bold. Wulingyuan has many huge rocks with strange appearance, some of them are very dangerous and steepy: they gather together, just like many coral come out from the deep blue sea; Wulingshan also boasts its great variety of plants, most of them can leave a deep impression onto the mind of guests with their bizarre looks; here is also the home of brooks, springs, lakes and waterfalls, with the shadow of clouds and fog, the entire scene looks mysterious and vague; the water-eroded caves here are another particularity.

There are all together 3103 hoodoos, and this is quite unique in the world hoodoo family. The waterscape here is famed as "Water Eight Hundred", it will always remain the same even in time of drought. The biological reserves in Wulingyuan feature a vegetation of clear vertical pattern, a complete architecture of plant community, a well-balanced ecosystem; it accumulates many old and rare plants and the particular plant resource in China. 35 kinds of valuable plants here were among the first to be listed in the "Directory of Rare Plants in Severe Danger in China".

There are quite some scenic spots in Wulingyuan occupying 390.8 km2, and area opened primarily to the visitors is 264 km2. The natural scenes here are splendid, gorgeous, they are full of changes; it is the wild animals that add a crucial touch to the credit of the place; climatic comfort is an extra advantage bestowed to the sites as well as the travelers; the tourist site is famed as "the world of science, the world of art, the world of fairy tales and the world of mysteries.

“三江并流”自然景观

"三江并流"自然景观位于中国西南部云南省青藏高原南部横断山脉的纵谷地区，由怒江、澜沧江、金沙江及其流域内的山脉组成，整个区域面积达4.1万平方公里。它地处东亚、南亚和青藏高原三大地理区域的交汇处，是世界上罕见的高山地貌及反映其演化的代表地区，也是世界上生物物种最为丰富的地区之一。该地区跨越丽江地区、迪庆藏族自治州、怒江傈僳族自治州三个地州，区内汇集了高山峡谷、雪峰冰川、高原湿地、森林草甸、淡水湖泊、稀有动物、珍贵植物等奇异景观。 同时，该地区还是16个民族的聚居地，是世界上罕见的多民族、多语言、多种宗教信仰和风俗习惯并存的地区。长期以来，"三江并流"自然景观一直是科学家、探险家和旅游者的向往之地，具有重要的科学价值、美学意义和丰富多彩的少数民族文化。

Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan

In the high mountains of southwest China's Yunnan Province, three rivers - the Jinsha, Nujiang and Lancang - all originated from the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, run roughly parallel, north to south for some 170 km. As the crow flies, the distance between the Jinsha and Lancang rivers is 66 km while that between the Lancang and Nujiang rivers is less than 19 km.

The Three Parallel Rivers site covers land of some 1.7 million hectares. With it come nine nature reserves and 10 scenic spots variously belonging to Lijiang City, Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and the Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture. Located where the three geological regions of East Asia, South Asia and Qinghai-Tibet Plateau meet, it is representative of rare alpine landforms and their evolution, and one of the richest biodiversity areas in the world.

Sanjiang is a veritable museum displaying the geological history of the last 40-50 million years associated with the collision of the Indian and Eurasian Plate and the lifting of the Himalaya Range and Tibetan Plateau.

Every kind of landscape to be found in the northern Hemisphere other than desert and ocean can be found here including magnificent snow-capped mountains and glaciers, precipitous Danxia cliffs and wonderful Karst formations.

The region has 118 snow-capped mountains over 5,000 meters above sea level, varying widely in form. With them come many hectares of untouched forest and several hundred glacial lakes.

Highest among them at 6,740 meters is the snow-capped Meili Mountain with its 10,000-year-old glaciers. Crystal-clear and sparkling, the ice makes its way very slowly from high on the peak down to the Mingyongcun Forest at 2,700 meters. It is considered to be the world's finest monsoon glacier and remarkable for its descent to such a low altitude. For thousands of years, Tibetan people have regarded the Meili as a holy mountain. To this day they respect the need to obtain permission before going on the mountain.

The Danxia landforms in the Laojun Mountains in the Lijiang Area, picturesque in their forest setting, are both the biggest and the best-formed examples of this geomorphology in China. In places, the red cliffs have weathered away to leave formations said to look like tortoises. On the aptly named thousand tortoise mountain, one can imagine at first a single large tortoise and then on closer inspection see it to be made up of the regular ranks of thousands of small tortoises.

First among China's 17 key bio-diversity areas, the site with its precious gene bank, has been acclaimed as being of world class importance. Though accounting for less than 0.4 percent of the area of the country, the region plays host to more than 20 percent of the country's most important plants and 25 percent of its animal species. Today the region is home to 77 animals under state-level protection including the Yunnan golden monkey, antelope, snow leopard, Bengali tiger and black-necked crane. It has 34 kinds of plants under state-level protection including the China fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata), the spinulose tree fern (Cyathea spinulosa) and the Chinese yew (Taxus chinensis ).

Every year when spring comes again, the region becomes a sea of flowers. There are 200 kinds of azaleas, nearly 100 kinds of gentian (Gentiana scabra), and primroses, Scrophylariaceae, Cypripedium and lilies.

In the meantime, the region is inhabited by 16 ethnic groups, one of the few areas in the world where different kinds of people, language, religious belief and customs live in harmony.

In 1985, a UNESCO official discovered this world wonder from among satellite scanning images. In 1988, the Three Parallel Rivers area was designated as a state-level scenic attraction with the approval of the State Council.

On July 2, 2003, the site was inscribed on the World Heritage List as a natural property at the 27th session of the UNESCO's World Heritage Committee.