西汉建立时基本上沿用秦朝的服制。东汉时期穿黑色衣服必配紫色丝织的装饰物。祭祀大典上通用的是“长冠服”。皇后的祭祀服是：上衣用绀色，下裳用皂色。皇后的蚕服，上衣用青色，下裳用缥色（浅黄色）。汉文帝当政时比较俭朴，自己穿黑色丝织衣、皮鞋。一般官员要穿禅衣，又名“祗服”。在西汉时期二百年之中，服饰实行“深衣制”，它的特点是象蝉一样的头冠（帽子）、红色的衣服、象田字状的领子、戴玉　、红色的鞋。深衣形制是上衣下裳相连接缝在一起，做祭服的中衣，要缘黑色边，作为朝服的中衣，需缘红色边，当时男女服用极为普遍。服饰总称“禅衣”。禅衣是单层的外衣。禅衣里面有中衣、深衣，其形与禅衣无大区别，只是袖形有变化，都属于单层布帛衣裳。官员在上朝时都要穿黑色禅衣。

汉衣款式以衣襟分类，可以划分两种：一为“曲裾禅衣”，即开襟是从领曲斜至腋下；一为直裾禅衣，是开襟从领向下垂直，此种禅衣又称“　　”。曲裾，即为战国时期流行的深衣。汉代仍然沿用，到东汉，男子穿深衣的已经不多了，一般为直裾衣，但并不能作为正式礼服。这种服式既长又宽，从款式上官民服用基本没有差别，但从原料和颜色上，却可明显显示等级的不同。

汉代朝服的服色有具体规定，一年四季按五时着服，即春季用青色；夏季用红色；季夏用黄色；秋季用白色；冬季用黑色。

汉代着衣有七个特点：
1、穿外衣时，由于领大而且弯曲，穿衣时必需暴露中衣的领型；
2、穿衣必用白色面料做里；
3、袖宽为一尺二寸；
4、衫无袖；
5、穿皮毛服装时裘毛朝外；
6、腰带极为考究，所用带钩以金制成各种兽形，如螳螂形或琵琶形。形象十分生动有趣。一般长度在一寸半至六寸之间，是衣裳中间显要的装饰物。汉带钩从形、色和工艺上都达到了极高的水平，较比西周和战国时期，在设计和制作方面都要精美得多。因此颇受男人们的喜爱，佩戴者很多；
7、男子保持佩刀习俗，但所佩之刀有形无刃，因此失去了实际价值，主要是显示仪容。

汉代祭服延用“大　制度”，遵从古礼穿冕服佩绶、佩玉。皇帝、公卿、诸侯均用大　，只是在所系玉石的串珠或丝绳的质地上加以区别。皇太后、太后、公卿夫人等的祭服(谒庙服)、亲蚕服、朝见服和婚礼服的形式都采用深衣制。

汉时劳动女子总是上穿短襦，下穿长裙，膝上装饰长长垂下的腰带。劳动男子常服是上身穿襦，下身穿犊鼻裤，并在衣外围罩布裙；这种装束不分工奴、农奴、商贾、士人都一样。

Costume in the Han Dynasty

China's complete code of costume and trappings was established in the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD). The yarn-dyeing, embroidering and metal-processing technologies developed rapidly in the period, spurring changes in costume and adornments.

The costume code of the Western Han Dynasty (206BC-8AD) followed the one established in the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC). In the Eastern Han Dynasty, people in black had to wear purple silk adornments to match their clothes. People usually wore costume with a long hat at grand ceremonies offering sacrifices to gods or ancestors. The dress of the queen in these ceremonies consisted of dark-purple frock and black trousers. The silk dress of the queen consisted of cyan frock and buff trousers.

The Western Han Dynasty implemented the Shenyi (long coat) system, which featured a cicada-shaped hat, red clothes and "田"-shaped collar. In addition, people of that time wore jade articles and red shoes. The frock and skirt were sewn together in the Shenyi system. Underpants for memorial ceremonies were decorated with black brims, and those for court dress in feudal China were decorated with red brims. All the garments were collectively called as Chanyi (unlined garment).

Costumes in the Han Dynasty fell into two categories according to Yijin (one or two pieces making up the front of a Chinese jacket or grown). There were two types of garments: the curving-front unlined garment with buttons deviously down from the collar to the axilla; the straight-front unlined garment with buttons were straightly down from the collar to the lower part. Curving-front garment originated from the Shenyi (long coat) prevalent in the Warring States Period, and was still in use in the Han Dynasty. But few people wore the Shenyi garments during the Eastern Han Dynasty.

There were specific stipulations on colors of court garments in the Han Dynasty. Officers must wear garments according to the five time periods, i.e. cyan garments in the spring, red in the first two months of the summer, yellow in the last month of the summer, white in the autumn and black in the winter.

Costumes of the Han Dynasty had 7 features:
1. Wearers must expose underpants' collar form , as the collar was big and curving;
2. Clothes must use white cloth as lining;
3. The width of sleeve was 0.4 meters;
4. The blouse had no sleeve;
5. Wearers of fur clothes should have the fur facing outside;
6. Waistband was very exquisite. Belt hook was made of gold in various lively and interesting animal figures;
7. The male kept the habitude of wearing walking sabres without blades for decoration only.

Female laborers of the Han Dynasty always wore short jackets and long skirts, and their knees were always decorated with long hanging waistbands. Male laborers often wore jackets and calf-nose trousers with aprons around the garments. Farmers, workers, businessmen and scholars were all in the same dressing style at that time.

唐服

唐代大袖衫
　　
唐朝还流行女子穿"胡服"。"胡服"就是西域人的服装。腰带形式也深受胡服影响。在此以前，人们的腰饰是以金银铜铁，这时候流行系"蹀躞带"，带上有金饰，并扣有短而小的小带以作系物之用。这种腰带服用最盛是在唐代，以后延用一直至北宋年代。

盛唐以后，胡服的影响逐渐减弱，女服的样式日趋宽大。到了中晚唐时期，这种特点更加明显，一般妇女服装，袖宽往往四尺以上。中晚唐的贵族礼服，一般多在重要场合穿着，穿着这种礼服，发上还簪有金翠花钿，所以又称"钿钗礼衣"。

唐高宗以后，以紫色为三品官的服色；浅绯色为五品官服色，深绿色为六品官服色，浅绿色为七品官服色，深青色为八品官服色，浅青色为九品官服色，黄色为宫外之人及庶民服色。

唐装还对邻国有很大的影响。比如日本和服从色彩上大大吸取了唐装的精华，朝鲜服也从形式上承继了唐装的长处。唐装襦裙线条柔长，十分优美自如，用料主要是丝织品，因此它的衣物以"软"和"飘柔"著称。唐装本身品类多，善变化，从外形到装饰均大胆吸收外来服饰特点，多以中亚、印度、伊朗、波斯及北方和西域外族服饰为参考，充实唐代服饰文化，使得唐代服饰丰富多采富丽堂皇，风格独特奇异多姿，成为中国历史服饰中的一朵奇葩，世人瞩目。

Costume in the Tang Dynasty

The unified and prosperous China was established in the Tang Dynasty (618-907). In China's history, the Tang Dynasty was a period when the polity and economy were highly developed and the culture and art were thriving.

Women's dress and personal adornments of the Tang Dynasty were outstanding in China's history. The clothing materials were exquisite, the structure was natural, graceful and elegant, and adornments were splendid. Though the forms of garments were still the continuation of the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD) and the Sui Dynasty (581-618), they were influenced by cultures and arts of the Western Regions. Especially, the national power of the High Tang was strong. The trades and cultural exchanges with Korea, Vietnam, Japan, Persia and other countries gradually became frequent, and they mutually dispatched emissaries and accepted students of other countries. In this way, a special open and romantic style of dress and personal adornments was formed.

Because of communication with the Western Regions, the influence of dressing culture of other minorities on the Tang court also reflected the change of thoughts and concepts. Chinese women were seriously restricted by the old Confucian or feudal ethical code all through the ages. The social status of ancient women was very low: they often served as Jileren (music performer), Guanji (official performer), Gongji (palace performer) and Jiaji (family performer), and were regarded as the playthings and goods that can be sold and bought by rich people. Some females had rebel spirit in the Tang Dynasty, so they climbed or jumped over the walls and went to the nature to view the beautiful scenes and/or go sightseeing in the spring by riding horses with men. Just as recorded by many historical materials, some girls therefore dressed as boys in order to go out.

It was a fashion for women to wear Hufu (garments of the Tartars or those who lived in the Western Regions). After the High Tang, the influences of Hufu were gradually weakened and women's garments became broad and loose day by day. As to ordinary women's garments, the width of sleeve was always more than 1.3 meters.

After the reign of Tang Emperor Gaozong, purple was used as the garment color for officials above the third grade; light red for officials above the fifth grade; dark green for officials above the sixth grade; light green for officials above the seventh grade; dark cyan for officials above the eighth grade; light cyan for officials above the ninth grade; and yellow for ordinary people and those who did not live in the palace.

The garments in the Tang Dynasty also greatly affected the garments of neighboring countries. For instance, Japanese kimono adopted the elites of the dresses of the Tang Dynasty in terms of colors, and the Hanbok (traditional Korean clothing) also adopted the advantages of the dresses of the Tang Dynasty. The dresses of the Tang Dynasty were mainly made of silk, so dresses were famous for softness and lightness. The dresses of the Tang Dynasty boldly adopted the features of foreign garments in terms of forms and adornments; i.e. they mainly referred to the garments of other countries (such as the Central-Asia countries, India, Iran, Persia, northern countries and the Western Regions) and used them to improve the habilatory culture of the Tang Dynasty.

中国少数民族的服饰文化

中国少数民族服饰绚丽多彩，精美绝伦,各具特色。它是各民族优秀历史文化的重要组成部分。

服饰制作从原料、纺织工艺,以至样式、装饰都保持着鲜明的民族和地区特色。以捕角为主要经济生活的赫哲族早年曾以鱼皮为衣,曾长期从事狩猎的鄂伦春、鄂温克等族狍皮兽筋缝制衣服。经营畜牧业的蒙古族、藏族、哈萨克族、柯尔克孜族、裕固族等，穿戴多取诸牲畜皮毛。从事农业的少数民族则以当地出产的棉麻丝为原料，纺织布帛丝绸，缝制衣服。

少数民族的纺织、鞣皮、擀毡等工艺，有着悠久的历史。如黎族的木棉布、藏族的氆氇、维吾尔族的爱得丽丝绸、鄂伦春的皮毛制品等素负盛名。

中国少数民族服饰款式纷繁，各自有异。大体上有长袍和短衣两类。穿袍子的民族一般戴帽蹬靴，穿短衣的民族多缠帕着履。袍子形式也多种多样，有蒙古、满、土等民族的高领大襟式，有藏、门巴等族的无领斜襟式，有维吾尔等族的右斜襟式等，还有坎肩式长袍。短衣有裤和裙之别。

裙子款式有百褶裙、筒裙、短裙、连衣裙等。无论是袍、衣、裙、裤，不同的民族在结构、工艺、风格等方面都有差别，同是高领大襟袍，有开叉和不开叉的，有前后开叉的，有前后开叉和周围镶边的、黎、傣、景颇、德昂等民族妇女都穿筒裙，但黎族为棉制锦裙、景颇族为毛织花裙、德昂族为横条纹裙，而傣族多为市购布料裙。

民族服饰不仅民族与民族之间存在着明显的区别，就是在民族内部，不同支系、不同地区也都有明显的差异。省与省之间，县与县之间，以至寨与寨之间都有差别，如百花齐放，千姿百态。服饰是民族最显而易见的标志，历史上曾因服饰不同赋予乎很多民族各种地方性的名称。

在中国这样一个地域辽阔，民族众多，社会发展不平衡的国家里，由于经济生活、文化素养和自然环境，地理气候的差异，从而导致民族服饰的多种多样，应该说这是民俗服饰的特点之一。中国少数民族的刺绣、蜡染等工艺相当发达，并广泛用于服饰装饰上，是民族服饰的又一特点。 刺绣是各民族普遍喜爱的工艺，一般运用在头巾、腰带、围裙以及衣襟、环肩、下摆、袖口、裤脚、裙边等易损部位，既起装饰作用，又有实用价值。刺绣包括桃花、补花、绣花等多种工艺，绣花的手法有平绣、o绣、编绣、结绣、盘绣等，花纹图案有自然景物，吉祥图案和几何纹样等。

Costumes of Ethnic Minorities in China

Clothes of Chinese ethnic minorities are flowery and colorful, extremely exquisite, and highly distinctive. They constitute an important part of the rich history and culture of the ethnic groups.

A pleated skirt

Every aspect of their garments, such as raw materials, textile technology, fashion and decoration, retains a distinct characteristic of the ethnic group and the locality. The Hezhen ethnic minority people, who mainly make a living on fishing, used to make clothes with fishskin. The hunting ethnic groups, such as Oroqen and Ewenki, used roe skin and animal tendon to stitch up their clothes. The Mongolians, Tibetans, Kazakstans, Khalkhases, Yugurs, etc., who are mainly engaged in stockbreeding, make their apparel mostly from animal skin and hair. And, farming ethnic minorities usually take the locally produced cotton or hemp thread as raw materials to spin cloth and silk and make clothes.

Ethnic minorities' spinning and weaving, tanning and felting techniques boast a long history. For example, bombax cloth of the Li ethnic minority, woolen fabric of the Tibetan, Adelis silk of the Uygur, fur products of the Oroqen have enjoyed a worldwide reputation all along.

There are numerous clothing designs and forms in Chinese ethnic minorities. Generally speaking, they can be classified into two types: long gowns and short clothes. People usually wear a hat and boots to match long gowns, and headcloth and shoes to match short clothes. The gowns take various forms: the high-collar and big-front type worn by the Mongolian, the Manchu, the Tu and so on; the collarless tilted-front type worn by the Tibetan, the Moinba and so on; the tilted-front type worn by the Uygur and other ethnic minorities; and so on. As for short clothes, they fall into two types: trousers and skirts.

In terms of fashion of skirts, there are pleated skirts, tube skirts, short skirts, one-piece dress and so on. In any kind of clothes, no matter it is the gown, the coat, the skirt, or the trousers, different ethnic minority groups employ different structures, techniques and styles. Take high-collared big gowns for example. Some of them have kick pleat, some don't have any kick pleat, some have kick pleat both in front and on the back, and some have front and back kick pleat and edging all around. Women of the Li, the Dai, the Jingpo, the De'ang ethnic minorities and so on all wear tube skirts, but those tube skirts worn by the Li are brocade skirts made of cotton, those worn by the Jingpo are woolen multicolored skirts, those worn by the De'ang are skirts with horizontal stripes, and those worn by the Dai are usually skirts made of common cloth.

Costumes of ethnic minorities vary greatly not only with different nationalities, but also with different branches and different regions within the same ethnic group. Difference can be seen from province to province, from county to county, and even from village to village. Costume is the most obvious symbol of an ethnic group, and in the history, many ethnic groups were named just according to their garments.

In a vast country like China, with so many ethnic groups and an unbalanced social development, styles of clothes vary a lot due to different economic lives, cultural levels, natural environments and geographical conditions and climatic conditions. This is one of the characteristics of folk garments.

Some techniques of Chinese ethnic minorities such as embroidery and batik are much developed, and are widely used in making clothing adornments. This is another feature of their costumes.

Embroidery is a technique generally favored by all ethnic groups, and it is usually used in the headband, the waistband, the apron, and some rapid-wearing parts such as the border of the front, the round shoulder, the lower hem, the wristband, the bottom of trouser legs, the edge of the skirt, etc., being both decorative and practical. Embroidery techniques include cross-stitch work, applique, embroidering and so on; methods include surface, twine, chain, net, stab and stack embroidery, etc; patterns include natural scenes, auspicious patterns and geometric patterns and so on.

旗袍

旗袍是从满族古老的服装演变而来的。旗袍，满语称"衣介"。古时泛指满洲、蒙古、汉军八旗男女穿的衣袍。

清初（公元1644年-公元1911年）衣袍式样有几大特点：无领、箭袖、左衽、四开衩、束腰。箭袖，是窄袖口，上加一块半圆形袖头，形似马蹄，又称"马蹄袖"。马蹄袖平日绾起，出猎作战时则放下，覆盖手背，冬季可御寒。四开衩，即袍下摆前后左右，开衩至膝．左衽和束腰，紧身保暖，腰带一束，行猎时，可将干粮，用具装进前襟。男子的长袍多是蓝，灰、青色，女子的旗装多为白色． 满族旗袍还有一个特点，就是在旗袍外套上坎肩。坎肩有对襟、捻襟、琵琶襟、一字襟等。穿上坎肩骑马驰聘显得十分精干利索。

清世祖入关，迁都北京，旗袍开始在中原流行。清统一中国，也统一全国服饰，男人穿长袍马褂，女人穿旗袍。以后，随着满汉生活的融合，统一，旗袍不仅被汉族妇女吸收，并不断进行革新。特别随着辛亥革命的风云，旗袍迅速在全国普及。

自30年代起，旗袍几乎成了中国妇女的标准服装，民间妇女、学生、工人、达官显贵的太太，无不穿着。旗袍甚至成了交际场合和外交活动的礼服。后来，旗袍还传至国外，为他国女子效仿穿着。 至20世纪30年代，满族男女都穿直统式的宽襟大袖长袍。女性旗袍下摆至（骨干）(小腿)，有绣花卉纹饰。男性旗袍下摆及踝，无纹饰。

40年代后，受国内外新式服饰新潮的冲击，满族男性旗袍已废弃，女性旗袍由宽袖变窄袖，直筒变紧身贴腰，臀部略大，下摆回收，长及踝，逐渐形成今日各色各样讲究色彩装饰和人体线条美的旗袍样式。

汉族妇女为啥喜爱穿旗袍？主要旗袍的造型与妇女的体态相适合，线条简便，优美大方，所以，有人认为旗袍是中国女人独有的福音，可起到彩云托月的作用。而且，旗袍是老少宜穿，四季相宜，雅俗共赏。 根据季节的变化和穿着者的不同需要、爱好，可长可短，可做单旗袍、夹旗袍；也可做衬绒短袍、丝棉旗袍。并且，随着选料不同，可展现出不同风格。选用小花、素格、细条丝绸制作，可显示出温和、稳重的风韵；选用织锦类衣料制作，可当迎宾、赴宴的华贵眼饰。

当中国旗袍在日本、法国等地展销时，很受当地妇女人士欢迎，她们不借重金，争购旗袍，特别是黑丝绒夹金花、篓金花的高档旗袍，最为抢手。旗袍正以浓郁的民族风格，体现了中华民族传统的服饰美。它不仅成为中国女装的代表，同时也公认为东方传统女装的象征。

Chinese Cheongsam

The cheongsam, or Qipao in Chinese, is evolved from a kind of ancient clothing of Manchu ethnic minority. In ancient times, it generally referred to long gowns worn by the people of Manchuria, Mongolia and the Eight-Banner.

In the early years of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), long gowns featured collarless, narrow cuff in the shape of a horse's hoof, buttons down the left front, four slits and a fitting waist. Wearers usually coiled up their cuff, and put it down when hunting or battling to cover the back of hand. In winter, the cuff could serve to prevent cold. The gown had four slits, with one on the left, right, front and back, which reached the knees. It was fitted to the body and rather warm. Fastened with a waistband, the long gown could hold solid food and utensils when people went out hunting. Men's long gowns were mostly blue, gray or green; and women's, white.

Another feature of Manchu cheongsam was that people generally wore it plus a waistcoat that was either with buttons down the front, a twisted front, or a front in the shape of lute, etc.

When the early Manchu rulers came to China proper, they moved their capital to Beijing and cheongsam began to spread in the Central Plains. The Qing Dynasty unified China, and unified the nationwide costume as well. At that time, men wore a long gown and a mandarin jacket over the gown, while women wore cheongsam. Although the 1911 Revolution toppled the rule of the Qing (Manchu) Dynasty, the female dress survived the political change and, with succeeding improvements, has become the traditional dress for Chinese women.

Till the 1930s, Manchu people, no matter male or female, all wore loose-fitting and straight-bottomed broad-sleeved long gowns with a wide front. The lower hem of women's cheongsam reached the calves with embroidered flower patterns on it, while that of men's cheongsam reached the ankles and had no decorative patterns.

From the 1930s, cheongsam almost became the uniform for women. Folk women, students, workers and highest-tone women all dressed themselves in cheongsam, which even became a formal suit for occasions of social intercourses or diplomatic activities. Later, cheongsam even spread to foreign countries and became the favorite of foreign females.

After the 1940s, influenced by new fashion home and abroad, Manchu men's cheongsam was phased out, while women's cheongsam became narrow-sleeved and fitted to the waist and had a relatively loose hip part, and its lower hem reached the ankles. Then there emerge various forms of cheongsams we see today that emphasize color decoration and set off the beauty of the female shape.

Why do Han people like to wear the cheongsam? The main reason is that it fits well the female Chinese figure, has simple lines and looks elegant. What's more, it is suitable for wearing in all seasons by old and young.

The cheongsam can either be long or short, unlined or interlined, woolen or made of silk floss. Besides, with different materials, the cheongsam presents different styles. Cheongsams made of silk with patterns of flowerlet, plain lattices or thin lines demonstrate charm of femininity and staidness; those made of brocade are eye-catching and magnificent and suitable for occasions of greeting guests and attending banquets.

When Chinese cheongsams were exhibited for sales in countries like Japan and France, they received warm welcome from local women, who did not hesitate to buy Chinese cheongsams especially those top-notch ones made of black velour interlined with or carved with golden flowers. Cheongsam features strong national flavor and embodies beauty of Chinese traditional costume. It not only represents Chinese female costume but also becomes a symbol of the oriental traditional costume.

中国的“四大名绣”
"Four Famous Embroideries” of China

中国的传统刺绣工艺品当中，常常将产于中国中部湖南省的"湘绣"，中国西部四川省的"蜀绣"，产于中国南部广东省的"粤绣"和产于中国东部江苏省的"苏绣"合称为中国"四大名绣"。
湘 绣
作为中国四大名绣之一的湘绣，向来以历史悠久，工艺精湛，风格独特，品类繁多而闻名海内外。迄今为止发现的最早的湘绣制品，是长沙马王堆一号汉代（公元前206年～公元220年）墓葬出土的一件丝织品，它所使用的针法与现代湘绣所差无几，说明早在两千多年前的汉代，湘绣工艺就已经产生了。此后经过漫长的发展，湘绣逐渐将国画传统特点引入其中，从而形成了自身的独特风格。至清末民初（20世纪初期），湘绣的发展达到鼎盛时期，甚至超越了苏绣，在中国刺绣业中独占鳌头。新中国成立后，湘绣工作者在继承传统的基础上致力创新，使湘绣工艺提高到一个崭新的水平。
湘绣主要以纯丝、硬缎、软缎、透明纱、尼纶等为原料，配以各色的丝线、绒线绣制而成。它以中国画为神，充分发挥针法的表现力，达到构图严谨，形象逼真，色彩鲜明，质感强烈，形神兼备的艺术境界。绣品中既有名贵的欣赏艺术品，也有美观适用的日用品。

民间湘绣艺人周淑纯在家
中绣花
Xiang Embroidery
Xiang embroidery is well known for its time-honored history, excellent craftsmanship and unique style. The earliest piece of Xiang embroidery was unearthed at the No 1 Tomb of Mawangdui, Changsha City of the Han Dynasty (206BC-AD220). The weaving technique was almost the same as the one used in modern times, which demonstrated that embroidery had already existed in the Han Dynasty. In its later development, Xiang Embroidery absorbed the characteristics of traditional Chinese paintings and formed its own unique characteristics. Xiang embroidery experienced its heyday at the end of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) and in the early Republic of China (early 20th century), even surpassing Su embroidery. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Xiang embroidery was further improved and developed to a new level.
Xiang embroidery uses pure silk, hard satin, soft satin and nylon as its material, which is connected with colorful silk threads. Absorbing the spirit of Chinese paintings, the embroidery reaches a high artistic level. Xiang embroidery crafts include valuable works of art, as well as materials for daily use.

蜀 绣
蜀绣也称"川绣"，它是以四川成都为中心的刺绣产品的总称。蜀绣的生产具有悠久的历史。早在汉代（公元前206～公元220年），蜀绣之名就已誉满天下，汉朝政府还在成都专门设置了"锦官"进行管理。汉以后至五代十国时期（公元907～960年），四川相对安定的局面为蜀绣的发展创造了有利的条件，社会需求的不断增大，刺激了蜀绣业的飞速发展。到了宋代（公元960～1279年），蜀绣的发展达到鼎盛时期，绣品在工艺、产销量和精美程度上都独步天下。清朝（公元1644～1911年）中叶以后，蜀绣逐渐形成行业，当时各县官府均设"劝工局"以鼓励蜀绣生产。新中国成立后，在四川设立了成都蜀绣厂，使蜀绣工艺的发展进入了一个新阶段，技术上不断创新，品种日益增多。
蜀绣起源于川西民间，在长期的发展过程中，由于受地理环境、风俗习惯、文化艺术等方面的影响，逐渐形成了严谨细腻、光亮平整、构图疏朗、浑厚圆润、色彩明快的独特风格。蜀绣作品的选材丰富，有花草树木、飞禽走兽、山水鱼虫、人物肖像等。针法包括12大类共122种，常用的针法有晕针、铺针、滚针、截针、掺针、沙针、盖针等，讲究"针脚整齐，线片光亮，紧密柔和，车拧到家"。绣品的种类繁多，包括被面、枕套、衣、鞋和画屏等，既有巨幅条屏，又有袖珍小件，是观赏性与实用性兼备的精美艺术品。

Shu Embroidery
Also called Chuan embroidery, Shu embroidery is the general name for embroidery products in areas around Chengdu, Sichuan Province. Shu embroidery enjoys a long history. As early as the Han Dynasty, Shu embroidery was already famous. The central government even designated an office in this area for its administration. During the Five Dynasties and Ten States periods (907-960), a peaceful society and large demand provided advanced conditions for the rapid development of the Shu Embroidery industry. Shu embroidery experienced its peak development in the Song Dynasty (960-1279), ranking first in both production and excellence. In the mid-Qing Dynasty, the Shu embroidery industry was formed. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Shu embroidery factories were set up and the craft entered a new phase of development, using innovative techniques and a larger variety of forms.
Originating among the folk people in the west of Sichuan Province, Shu embroidery formed its own unique characteristics: smooth, bright, neat and influenced by the geographical environment, customs and cultures. The works incorporated flowers, leaves, animals, mountains, rivers and human figures as their themes. Altogether, there are 122 approaches in 12 categories for weaving. The craftsmanship of Shu embroidery involves a combination of fine arts, aesthetics and practical uses, such as the facings of quits, pillowcases, coats, shoots and screen covers.

粤 绣
粤绣也称"广绣"。它是出产于广东省广州、潮州、汕头、中山、番禺、顺德一带刺绣品的总称。据史料记载，唐代的永贞元年（公元805年），广东南海县一位名叫卢媚娘的少女曾在一块一尺左右的绢面上绣出七卷《法华经》，粤绣从此名扬天下。宋元时期（公元10～14世纪），广州港的繁荣促进了粤绣工艺的飞速发展，粤绣品开始输出国外。明代（公元1368～1644年），广州的刺绣艺人已经能够娴熟地运用各色丝绒线刺绣，并创造性地使用动物的尾羽缠绒作线，使绣品更加自然生动。到清代的乾隆年间（公元1736～1796年），第一个粤绣行业组织"粤绣行"在广州成立，当时从事刺绣的艺人众多，粤绣在工艺和针法上都得以不断发展完善。1915年后，粤绣作品在巴拿马国际博览会等国际赛会上多次获得大奖。
粤绣在长期的发展过程中，受到各民族民间艺术的影响，在兼收并蓄、融会贯通的基础上，逐渐形成了自身独特的艺术风格。绣品主要取材于龙凤、花鸟等，图案构图饱满、均齐对称，色彩对比强烈、富丽堂皇。在针法上具有"针步均匀、纹理分明、处处见针、针针整齐"的特点。在种类上粤绣可分为绒绣、线绣、金银线绣三类，品种包括戏服、厅堂装饰、联帐、采眉、挂屏和各种日用绣品等。

Yue Embroidery
Also called Guang embroidery, Yue embroidery is a general name for embroidery products of the regions of Guangzhou, Shantou, Zhongshan, Fanyu and Shunde in Guangdong Province. According to historical records, in the first year of Yongyuan's reign (805) during the Tang Dynasty (618-907), a girl named Lu Meiniang embroidered the seventh volume of the Fahua Buddhist Scripture on a piece of thin silk 30 cm long. And so, Yue embroidery became famous around the country. The prosperous Guangzhou Port of the Song Dynasty promoted the development of Yue embroidery, which began to be exported at that time. During the Qing Dynasty, people animal hair as the raw material for Yue embroidery, which made the works more vivid. During Qianlong's reign (1736-1796) of the Qing, an industrial organization was established in Guangzhou. At that time, a large number of craftsmen devoted themselves to the craft, inciting further improvements to the weaving technique. Since 1915, the work of Yue embroidery garnered several awards at the Panama Expo.
Influenced by national folk art, Yue embroidery formed its own unique characteristics. The embroidered pictures are mainly of dragons and phoenixes, and flowers and birds, with neat designs and strong, contrasting colors. Floss, thread and gold-and-silk thread embroidery are used to produce costumes, decorations for halls and crafts for daily use.

苏 绣
苏绣是以江苏苏州为中心的刺绣产品的总称。苏州刺绣至今已有2000余年的历史，早在三国时期（公元220～280年）就有了关于苏绣制作的记载。此后经过历代的不断发展完善，到明代（1368～1644年）时，苏绣已成为苏州地区一项普遍的群众性副业产品，形成了"家家养蚕，户户刺绣"的局面。清代（公元1644～1911年）的苏绣以"精细雅洁"而闻名，当时的苏州更有了"绣市"的誉称。清代中后期，苏绣在绣制技术上有了进一步发展，新出现了精美的"双面绣"，仅苏州一地专门经营刺绣的商家就有65家之多。民国时期（公元1912～1949年），由于常年战乱，苏绣业曾一度衰落。新中国成立后，苏绣得到进一步的恢复和发展。1950年后，国家专门设立了苏绣研究所，并开办刺绣训练班。苏绣的针法由原来的18种发展到今天的40余种。
苏绣具有图案秀丽、构思巧妙、绣工细致、针法活泼、色彩清雅的独特风格，地方特色浓郁。绣技具有"平、齐、细、密、和、光、顺、匀"的特点。"平"指绣面平展；"齐"指图案边缘齐整；"细"指用针细巧，绣线精细；"密"指线条排列紧凑，不露针迹；"和"指设色适宜；"光"指光彩夺目，色泽鲜明；"顺"指丝理圆转自如；"匀"指线条精细均匀，疏密一致。在种类上，苏绣作品主要可分为零剪、戏衣、挂屏三大类，装饰性与实用性兼备。其中以"双面绣"作品最为精美。

Su Embroidery
With a history of more than 3,000 years, Su embroidery is the general name for embroidery products in areas around Suzhou, Jiangsu Province. The craft, which dates back to the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280), became a sideline of people in the Suzhou area during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). Well known for its smoothness and delicateness, Su embroidery won Suzhou the title City of Embroidery in the Qing Dynasty. In the mid and late Qing, Su embroidery experienced further developments involving works of double-sided embroidering. There were 65 embroidery stores in Suzhou City. During the Republic of China period (1912-1949), the Su embroidery industry was in decline due to frequent wars and it was restored and regenerated after the founding of new China. In 1950, the central government set up research centers for Su embroidery and launched training courses for the study of embroidery. Weaving methods have climbed from 18 to the present 40.
Su embroidery features a strong, folk flavor and its weaving techniques are characterized by the following: the product surface must be flat, the rim must be neat, the needle must be thin, the lines must be dense, the color must be harmonious and bright and the picture must be even. Su embroidery products fall into three major categories: costumes, decorations for halls and crafts for daily use, which integrate decorative and practical values. Double-sided embroidery is an excellent representative of Su embroidery.

茶文化

中国是茶的故乡，早在唐代以前，中国生产的茶叶便通过陆路及海运的方式远销各地。首先到达了日本和韩国，然后传到印度和中亚地区。在明清时期，又传到了阿拉伯半岛。在17世纪初期，中国茶叶又远销至欧洲各国，很多上层社会的贵族、绅士都养成了喝茶的习惯。中国的共和中国的丝绸及磁器一样，已经成为了中国在全世界的代名词。

The Art of Tea
"When a guest comes to my home from afar on a cold night, I light bamboo to boil tea to offer him." — Ancient Chinese poem.
China is the home country of tea. Before the Tang Dynasty, Chinese tea was exported by land and sea, first to Japan and Korea, then to India and Central Asia and, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, to the Arabian Peninsula. In the early period of the 17th century, Chinese tea was exported to Europe, where the upper class adopted the fashion of drinking tea. Chinese tea—like Chinese silk and china—has become synonymous worldwide with refined culture. At the heart of the art of tea—the study and practice of tea in all its aspects—is the simple gesture of offering a cup of tea to a guest that for Chinese people today is a fundamental social custom, as it has been for centuries. China traces the development of tea as an art form to Lu Yu, known as "the Saint of Tea" in Chinese history, who lived during the Tang Dynasty and who wrote The Book of Tea, the first ever treatise on tea and tea culture. The spirit of tea permeates Chinese culture, and throughout the country there are many kinds of teas, teahouses, tea legends, tea artifacts and tea customs. Better-known places to enjoy a good cup of tea in China include Beijing noted for its variety of teahouses; Fujian and Guangdong provinces and other places in the southeast of China that serve gongfu tea, a formal serving of tea in tiny cups; the West Lake in Hangzhou, also the home of the Tea Connoisseurs Association, noted for its excellent green tea; and provinces in southwest China like Yunnan where the ethnic groups less affected by foreign cultures retain tea ceremonies and customs in original tea-growing areas.

中国书画

中国汉字是从图画、符号逐渐演变形成的，汉字的书写和发展过程导致了书法艺术的产生。中国历代都有大书法家，其书法艺术和风格成为所在朝代书法的典型代表。人们对书法的喜爱一直流传到今天。
不同于西方的油画，中国的传统绘画有独特的表现形式。距今六七千年前新石器时代绘于陶器上的图画，是中国最早的绘画作品。由于最早的绘画和写字均使用同样的工具，并且都是以线条为主，故有“书画同源”之说。中国传统绘画作品一般都有题诗或题字，诗、书、画因而汇合成一个艺术整体，予人以更加丰厚的美学内涵。人物画、山水画和花鸟画均为传统绘画的重要画种，历代留下的此类绘画尤见传神。
当代中国的书法与绘画相当活跃。中国美术馆等艺术馆长年不断举办个人画展或联展；中国画每年都走出国门，到日本、韩国、美国、加拿大和欧洲等地展览。除中国画外，油画、版画、水彩画等西洋绘画在中国也得到发展。部分画家将国画与西画技法糅合一起进行创作，使画坛呈现出风格多样的艺术作品。以各种现代材料、格式、框架和手法为载体的现代艺术也占有一席之地，包括视频、数码、动画和声音艺术在内的新媒体艺术作品，已经在国内外的当代艺术展览中频频露面。
与艺术品拍卖行业的发展同步，画廊业近年来逐渐与国际惯例接轨。每年分别在北京、上海和广州各举办一次的艺术博览会，成为艺术品交易的另一种途径，其中上海艺术博览会为亚洲参展艺术品门类最齐全的艺术博览会。

Chinese characters evolved from pictures and signs, and the Chinese art of calligraphy developed naturally from its unique writing system. Through the ages, great calligraphers developed representative calligraphic styles of their times. The love of calligraphy is deeply ingrained in Chinese scholars, and has been handed down to the present day.

The roots of Chinese painting can be traced back to paintings on Neolithic pottery six or seven thousand years ago. Since similar tools and lines were used for the earliest painting and writing, painting is said to have the same origin as calligraphy. Thus, Chinese paintings usually integrate poetry or calligraphy with themes that include figures, landscapes, flowers, birds and other animals. Traditional Chinese painting remains a highly valued genre, often on exhibit in China as well as other countries. The contemporary art world in China is also very active. Some Chinese artists have become adept at Western-style painting, both oil and watercolor. Many Chinese painters have created works that combine traditional Chinese painting techniques with those of the West, enhancing both forms. The China Art Gallery and other art galleries hold individual or joint art exhibitions year in year out. Art expositions are held each year in Beijing, Guangzhou and Shanghai.

Introduction of Folk music

Introduction of Folk music
When discussing Han Chinese music, it is common to distinguish two major styles: northern and southern. The styles correspond to the two major geographical and cultural areas where most Han people live. Although both styles emanate from the general Han Chinese culture, they differ in detail because of environmental conditions. The north is cold, dry, and windy. The

hardships of life are reflected in the high-pitched, tense, and agitated style of folk song. The south, on the other hand, has mild weather and much rain. Life seems to be easier, and the folk songs of the south are generally lyrical and gentle in nature. Chinese music today is also influenced by Western musical concepts, which is an inevitable consequence of historical and social change.
Musical Styles
The common belief that the Chinese scale is a pentatonic scale (without half steps) is only partly correct. The Han Chinese has at least three forms of a seven-tone scale (See figure 1 in Han Chinese Music Scales). They also use various forms of a five-tone pentatonic scale (See figure 2 in Han Chinese Music Scales).
Southern Chinese folk songs tend to progress in more conjunct motion and smoother lines and emphasize the intervals of thirds and fifths. Northern melodies tend to progress in more disjunct, angular motion, and emphasize intervals of a fourth. These tendencies in the use of melodies are related to the tonal characteristics of the contrasting dialects of the two areas.
Except in special cases (such as free-rhythm introductions), most Chinese music is in duple rhythm. This fondness for duple rhythm (the Western equivalent of 2/4 and 4/4) can be attributed to the belief in the principle of natural duality (such as the female-male or yin-yang relationship). Chinese rhythm patterns may also reflect the Confucian Zhongyong concept: a “doctrine of the mean” that stresses moderation and balance. However, the weak-beat to strong-beat stresses in Western music are not necessarily used. Triple meter is rare, even in modern folk compositions. Syncopation, on the other hand, is the norm rather than the exception.
Chinese instrumental music is traditionally heterophonic if it is performed on more than one instrument or for an instrument and voice. Although Chinese music does not use the triadic, four-part harmonic progressions of Western music, harmony may occur occasionally. In fact, the sheng mouth organ produces fourths and fifths when played in the traditional manner, and some qin and zheng zither passages have two or more pitches sounding together when the musicians pluck two or more strings simultaneously. The Chinese people's fondness for clarity may have prevented them from developing a heavy musical texture.
Perhaps the most intricate aspect of traditional Chinese music, and of much East Asian music, is the use of nuance in instrumental and vocal timbre. Even when playing one instrument, there are minute differences in timbre production of a single tone. Much attention is placed on the production and control of single tones; each tone is regarded as a musical entity. The best example of this is heard in qin zither music.
Vocal Music
Vocal music is also complicated because of complex tonal inflections and the intricacies of the Chinese language. For example, even though Chinese words are monosyllabic, a singer takes great care in enunciating the “head” (beginning), “belly” (middle), and “tail” (end) of each word in Kun opera and Nanguan music. Therefore, timbre in Chinese music has a deeper meaning than simply tone color as an end in itself.
Chinese vocal quality is often described as being high-pitched and nasal. This is generally true, but there are regional differences. The northern style of singing (such as Peking opera) tends to be higher and shriller than the southern style of singing (such as Kun opera or Nanguan). This north-south contrast in vocal quality can even be heard in the local Baiguan (northern-style theater) and Nanquan (southern-style theater or lyric song) on the island of Taiwan.
Instruments
Thousands of indigenous and Sinicized musical instruments exist in China, but the Chinese seem to favor chordophones and aerophones. The famous term “silk and bamboo” refers to the ancient use of stringed instruments with silk strings and wind instruments made of bamboo. Of all the chordophones, the qin zither is by far the most venerated. It is depicted in many paintings and mentioned in classic literature. Next in importance to the qin zither is the zheng zither. In the past, solos and small ensembles were more characteristic of traditional Chinese music making; the large Chinese orchestra with a baton-waving conductor is a product of the twentieth century.
The pipa lute originated in Central Asia and is an instrument of great virtuosic possibilities. It is the subject of many paintings and poems and has held a societal position similar to that of the guitar in Western culture. Currently, the erhu, or two-stringed fiddle, is the most popular instrument in China. It originated in the northern tribes and is available in many sizes and variations. This fiddle is the “violin” of the modern Chinese orchestra. The sanxian lute is a banjo-like instrument that is used to accompany narrative singing. The yangqin is a many-stringed hammer dulcimer that originated in Persia. Its function is somewhat like that of the piano: it serves as either a solo instrument or an accompanying instrument.
In the aerophone category, di or disi side-blown flutes are the most numerous. The xiao end-blown flute is also a popular instrument. Perhaps the most exotic wind instrument is the sheng, a mouth organ that can produce many notes simultaneously. A popular folk wind instrument is the suona, a double-reed instrument that evolved from the Middle Eastern zurna. Because of recent archaeological discoveries, Chinese musicians have had a revived interest in the ancient bianzhong (bronze bell chimes) and bianqing (stone chimes). Variations of many Chinese musical instruments can be found in Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, and Mongolia.
Tradition and Folk Songs
Westerners sometimes describe Chinese music as “loud.” The Chinese themselves consider the northern style more dynamic and energetic and the southern style softer and more graceful. All of these characterizations are oversimplified, as the dynamics in Chinese music actually vary according to the nature of the musical genres and instruments. The classical music of Confucian scholars, such as qin zither music and lyric songs, is naturally soft. Players of pipa lute music are capable of expressing a full range of dynamics. Music for the suona is loud and piercing because of the instrument's construction and its function as an outdoor instrument. Theater orchestra music is loud because it was originally played outdoors in a festive atmosphere. Because of the many factors affecting dynamics in Chinese music, there is no one concept that can adequately describe them.
With the exception of work songs and shange (mountain songs), most Han Chinese folk songs, like most songs in Western folk music, are constructed in strophic form. Chinese folk music, however, uses fewer refrains. Typically, a folk song consists of two or four phrases of equal length; each phrase contains a new musical idea. Two-phrase songs are called “question-answer” songs, and four-phrase songs are “open” (qi), “inheriting” (cheng), “turned” (shuan), and “closed” (he) songs, all of which are terms borrowed from literary writing techniques. Much of Chinese opera music is based on a more complex melodic and rhythmic motivic system called Banqian.1
Of all the instrumental forms of Chinese music, the most popular are suites and variations. These forms are not, however, entirely equivalent to their Western counterparts. A Chinese suite is a series of musical movements that are loosely connected. These movements may be independent selections that do not have an apparent melodic or rhythmic relationship, or they may be related for programmatic reasons.
A major characteristic of Chinese instrumental variations is the use of identification motives called the hetou (refrain head) or hewei (refrain tail) that appear in the beginning and end of each movement. Again, except for these refrain motives, there might be no other relationship between the variations and the refrains or among the variations themselves. Sometimes, a movement appears several times among the other movements in a suite; this is considered a variation technique. Due to Western influence, ABA form has become extremely popular in modern instrumental folk music.
The Chinese have traditionally shown a fondness for extra-musical connotations, so Program music, poetic titles, and descriptions of compositions are popular. The existence of a sophisticated literary class is responsible for shaping this tradition, which is found not only in old music but also in modern socialist and so-called revolutionary work.